Graphical Abstract Figure
Abstract
Roughness caused by deposition, erosion, and additive manufacturing can significantly affect gas turbine efficiency. Previous research has often examined film cooling performance under limited roughness configurations, resulting in inconclusive findings. In this study, film cooling performances under various upstream roughness conditions were investigated to simulate the roughness-affected film cooling performance of the suction side and the endwall. Three roughness heights (k/D = 0.1, 0.2, and 0.4) and shapes (ks/k = 0.17, 0.67, and 1.95) were selected to cover a wide range of surface roughness characteristics. Three blowing ratios were examined (M = 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5). The weakly roughened surfaces (ks /k = 0.17) showed improved cooling effectiveness as k/D increased. Meanwhile, the moderately and severely roughened surfaces (ks /k = 0.67 and 1.95) showed a decrease in cooling effectiveness with increasing k/D at M = 0.5 and 1.0 but an increase at M = 1.5. Cases with shallower and higher roughness elements at M = 1.5 outperformed the smooth plate. Subsequently, a similarity hypothesis for film cooling effectiveness was proposed. At all blowing ratios, the scaled cooling effectiveness profiles converged around the smooth plate results for ks /D < 0.391, encompassing common turbine roughness scales, including irregularly roughened surfaces. Deviations emerged at ks /D = 0.782, and they were correlated with the deteriorated regions observed at various blowing ratios. Ensemble-averaged scaled cooling effectiveness exponentially grew with increasing roughness scale for all blowing ratios, and an empirical expression based on the smooth plate result and roughness scale was proposed (R2 > 0.97). Finally, the experimental results and fitting correlations of cooling effectiveness were compared. The results demonstrated that the proposed similarity hypothesis potentially facilitated the fast prediction of the roughness-affected film cooling performance.
References
1.
Hamed
, A.
, Tabakoff
, W. C.
, and Wenglarz
, R. V.
, 2006
, “Erosion and Deposition in Turbomachinery
,” J. Propul. Power
, 22
(2
), pp. 350
–360
. 2.
Kim
, J.
, Dunn
, M. G.
, Baran
, A. J.
, Wade
, D. P.
, and Tremba
, E. L.
, 1993
, “Deposition of Volcanic Materials in the Hot Sections of Two Gas Turbine Engines
,” ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power
, 115
(3
), pp. 641
–651
. 3.
Wang
, J.
, Tian
, K.
, Zhu
, H.
, Zeng
, M.
, and Sundén
, B.
, 2020
, “Numerical Investigation of Particle Deposition in Film-Cooled Blade Leading Edge
,” Numer. Heat Transfer, Part A
, 77
(6
), pp. 579
–598
. 4.
Jelly
, T. O.
, Nardini
, M.
, Rosenzweig
, M.
, Leggett
, J.
, Marusic
, I.
, and Sandberg
, R. D.
, 2023
, “High-Fidelity Computational Study of Roughness Effects on High Pressure Turbine Performance and Heat Transfer
,” Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow
, 101
, p. 109134
. 5.
Huang
, W.
, Zhang
, T.
, Zhou
, W.
, and Liu
, Y.
, 2023
, “Influence of Dust Purge Hole on Thermal Performance and Particle Deposition of a Turbine Blade With Ribbed Internal Cooling Channel
,” J. Vis.
, 26
(2
), pp. 299
–316
. 6.
Singh
, S.
, and Tafti
, D. K.
, 2016
, “Prediction of Sand Transport and Deposition in a Two-Pass Internal Cooling Duct
,” ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power
, 138
(7
), p. 072606
. 7.
Alfred
, I.
, Nicolaus
, M.
, Hermsdorf
, J.
, Kaierle
, S.
, Möhwald
, K.
, Maier
, H.-J.
, and Wesling
, V.
, 2018
, “Advanced High Pressure Turbine Blade Repair Technologies
,” Procedia CIRP
, 74
, pp. 214
–217
. 8.
Tabakoff
, W.
, 1987
, “Compressor Erosion and Performance Deterioration
,” ASME J. Fluids Eng.
, 109
(3
), pp. 297
–306
. 9.
Goldstein
, R. J.
, Eckert
, E. R. G.
, Chiang
, H. D.
, and Elovic
, E.
, 1985
, “Effect of Surface Roughness on Film Cooling Performance
,” ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power
, 107
(1
), pp. 111
–116
. 10.
Barlow
, D. N.
, and Kim
, Y. W.
, 1995
, “Effect of Surface Roughness on Local Heat Transfer and Film Cooling Effectiveness
,” ASME 1995 International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exposition
, Houston, TX
, June 5–8
, p. V004T09A014
.11.
Schmidt
, D. L.
, Sen
, B.
, and Bogard
, D. G.
, 1996
, “Effects of Surface Roughness on Film Cooling
,” ASME 1996 International Gas Turbine and Aeroengine Congress and Exhibition
, Birmingham, UK
, June 10–13
, p. V004T09A035
.12.
Lawson
, S. A.
, and Thole
, K. A.
, 2010
, “Effects of Simulated Particle Deposition on Film Cooling
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 133
(2
), p. 021009
. 13.
Bogard
, D. G.
, Snook
, D.
, and Kohli
, A.
, 2003
, “Rough Surface Effects on Film Cooling of the Suction Side Surface of a Turbine Vane
,” ASME 2003 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and Exposition
, Washington, DC
, Nov. 15–21
, pp. 89
–97
.14.
Rutledge
, J. L.
, Robertson
, D.
, and Bogard
, D. G.
, 2005
, “Degradation of Film Cooling Performance on a Turbine Vane Suction Side Due to Surface Roughness
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 128
(3
), pp. 547
–554
. 15.
Schroeder
, R. P.
, and Thole
, K. A.
, 2016
, “Effect of In-Hole Roughness on Film Cooling From a Shaped Hole
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 139
(3
), p. 031004
. 16.
Zamiri
, A.
, You
, S. J.
, and Chung
, J. T.
, 2021
, “Surface Roughness Effects on Film-Cooling Effectiveness in a Fan-Shaped Cooling Hole
,” Aerosp. Sci. Technol.
, 119
, p. 107082
. 17.
Banko
, A. J.
, Benson
, M. J.
, Davidson
, F. T.
, Zia
, W.
, Bordbar
, A.
, Boyce
, C.
, Veley
, E. M.
, and Thole
, K. A.
, 2023
, “Effects of Surface Roughness on Three-Dimensional Flow Structure Within Shaped Film Cooling Holes
,” ASME Turbo Expo 2023: Turbomachinery Technical Conference and Exposition
, Boston, MA
, June 26–30
.18.
Pu
, J.
, Zhang
, T.
, Shuai
, X.
, Wang
, J.-H.
, Chen
, Y.
, and Wu
, W.-L.
, 2023
, “Experimental Simulations of Effects of Surface Roughness Level of TBC on Overall Effectiveness of Film Cooling Under Typical Vane Environment
,” J. Therm. Anal. Calorim.
, 148
(19
), pp. 10251
–10267
. 19.
Wilkins
, P. H.
, Lynch
, S. P.
, Thole
, K. A.
, Vincent
, T.
, Quach
, S.
, and Mongillo
, D.
, 2022
, “Effect of a Ceramic Matrix Composite Surface on Film Cooling
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 144
(8
), p. 081014
. 20.
Wilkins
, P. H.
, Lynch
, S. P.
, Thole
, K. A.
, Vincent
, T.
, Quach
, S.
, and Kaufman
, E.
, 2022
, “Experimental Investigation Into the Effect of a Ceramic Matrix Composite Surface on Film Cooling
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 144
(12
), p. 121006
. 21.
Wilkins
, P. H.
, Lynch
, S. P.
, Thole
, K. A.
, Quach
, S.
, and Vincent
, T.
, 2021
, “Experimental Heat Transfer and Boundary Layer Measurements on a Ceramic Matrix Composite Surface
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 143
(6
), p. 061010
. 22.
Bons
, J. P.
, Taylor
, R. P.
, McClain
, S. T.
, and Rivir
, R. B.
, 2001
, “The Many Faces of Turbine Surface Roughness
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 123
(4
), pp. 739
–748
. 23.
Wasistho
, B.
, 2020
, “Calcia–Magnesia–Alumina-Silica Particle Deposition Prediction in Gas Turbines Using a Eulerian–Lagrangian Approach in Computational Fluid Dynamics
,” J. Mater. Res.
, 35
(17
), pp. 2288
–2299
. 24.
Casaday
, B. P.
, Ameri
, A. A.
, and Bons
, J. P.
, 2013
, “Numerical Investigation of Ash Deposition on Nozzle Guide Vane Endwalls
,” ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power
, 135
(3
), p. 032001
. 25.
Webb
, J.
, Casaday
, B.
, Barker
, B.
, Bons
, J. P.
, Gledhill
, A. D.
, and Padture
, N. P.
, 2012
, “Coal Ash Deposition on Nozzle Guide Vanes—Part I: Experimental Characteristics of Four Coal Ash Types
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 135
(2
), p. 021033
. 26.
Qenawy
, M.
, Zhou
, W.
, and Liu
, Y.
, 2022
, “Effects of Crossflow-Fed-Shaped Holes on the Adiabatic Film Cooling Effectiveness
,” Int. J. Therm. Sci.
, 177
, p. 107578
. 27.
Zhou
, W.
, Wang
, K.
, Yuan
, T.
, Wen
, X.
, Peng
, D.
, and Liu
, Y.
, 2022
, “Spatiotemporal Distributions of Sweeping Jet Film Cooling With a Compact Geometry
,” Phys. Fluids
, 34
(2
), p. 025113
. 28.
Zhang
, T.
, Huang
, W.
, Zhou
, W.
, Tian
, W.
, and Liu
, Y.
, 2023
, “Unveiling Particle Deposition Characteristics on Flat Plate With a Shaped Film Cooling Hole
,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
, 216
, p. 124584
. 29.
Shadid
, J. N.
, and Eckert
, E. R. G.
, 1991
, “The Mass Transfer Analogy to Heat Transfer in Fluids With Temperature-Dependent Properties
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 113
(1
), pp. 27
–33
. 30.
Charbonnier
, D.
, Ott
, P.
, Jonsson
, M.
, Cottier
, F.
, and Köbke
, T.
, 2009
, “Experimental and Numerical Study of the Thermal Performance of a Film Cooled Turbine Platform
,” ASME Turbo Expo 2009: Power for Land, Sea, and Air
, Orlando, FL
, June 8–12
, pp. 1027
–1038
.31.
Johnson
, B.
, and Hu
, H.
, 2016
, “Measurement Uncertainty Analysis in Determining Adiabatic Film Cooling Effectiveness by Using Pressure Sensitive Paint Technique
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 138
(12
), p. 121004
. 32.
Zhou
, W.
, and Hu
, H.
, 2017
, “A Novel Sand-Dune-Inspired Design for Improved Film Cooling Performance
,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
, 110
, pp. 908
–920
. 33.
Huang
, W.
, Jiang
, J.
, Xu
, Q.
, Du
, Q.
, Zhou
, W.
, Peng
, D.
, and Liu
, Y.
, 2024
, “A Comprehensive Heat Transfer Investigation for Impingement/Effusion Cooling Under Crossflow Conditions
,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
, 220
, p. 124950
. 34.
Peng
, D.
, Xie
, F.
, Liu
, X.
, Lin
, J.
, Li
, Y.
, Zhong
, J.
, Zhang
, Q.
, and Liu
, Y.
, 2020
, “Experimental Study on Hypersonic Shock–Body Interaction Between Bodies in Close Proximity Using Translucent Fast Pressure- and Temperature-Sensitive Paints
,” Exp. Fluids
, 61
(5
), p. 120
. 35.
Nikuradse
, J.
, 1933
, “Stromungsgesetze in rauhen Rohren
,” vdi-forschungsheft
, 361
, p. 1
. https://cir.nii.ac.jp/crid/157000975077198016036.
Schlichting
, H.
, 1936
, “Experimentelle Untersuchungen zum Rauhigkeitsproblem
,” Ing. Arch.
, 7
(1
), pp. 1
–34
. 37.
Bogard
, D. G.
, Schmidt
, D. L.
, and Tabbita
, M.
, 1998
, “Characterization and Laboratory Simulation of Turbine Airfoil Surface Roughness and Associated Heat Transfer
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 120
(2
), pp. 337
–342
. 38.
Ma
, D.
, Harvey
, T. J.
, Wellman
, R. G.
, and Wood
, R. J.
, 2019
, “Characterisation of Rain Erosion at Ex-Service Turbofan Blade Leading Edges
,” Wear
, 426–427
, pp. 539
–551
. 39.
Wildgoose
, A. J.
, and Thole
, K. A.
, 2023
, “Variability in Additively Manufactured Turbine Cooling Features
,” J. Glob. Power Propuls. Soc.
, 2023
(July
), pp. 3
–18
. 40.
Sigal
, A.
, and Danberg
, J. E.
, 1990
, “New Correlation of Roughness Density Effect on the Turbulent Boundary Layer
,” AIAA J.
, 28
(3
), pp. 554
–556
. 41.
van Rij
, J. A.
, Belnap
, B. J.
, and Ligrani
, P. M.
, 2002
, “Analysis and Experiments on Three-Dimensional, Irregular Surface Roughness
,” J. Fluid. Eng.
, 124
(3
), pp. 671
–677
. 42.
Womack
, K. M.
, Volino
, R. J.
, Meneveau
, C.
, and Schultz
, M. P.
, 2022
, “Turbulent Boundary Layer Flow Over Regularly and Irregularly Arranged Truncated Cone Surfaces
,” J. Fluid Mech.
, 933
, p. A38
. 43.
Schmidt
, D. L.
, Sen
, B.
, and Bogard
, D. G.
, 1996
, “Film Cooling With Compound Angle Holes: Adiabatic Effectiveness
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 118
(4
), pp. 807
–813
. 44.
Kunze
, M.
, Preibisch
, S.
, Vogeler
, K.
, Landis
, K.
, and Heselhaus
, A.
, 2008
, “A New Test Rig for Film Cooling Experiments on Turbine Endwalls
,” ASME Turbo Expo 2008: Power for Land, Sea, and Air
, Berlin, Germany
, June 9–13
, pp. 989
–998
.45.
Wright
, L. M.
, McClain
, S. T.
, and Clemenson
, M. D.
, 2011
, “Effect of Density Ratio on Flat Plate Film Cooling With Shaped Holes Using PSP
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 133
(4
), p. 041011
. 46.
Kohli
, A.
, and Bogard
, D. G.
, 1997
, “Adiabatic Effectiveness, Thermal Fields, and Velocity Fields for Film Cooling With Large Angle Injection
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 119
(2
), pp. 352
–358
. 47.
Kaminaris
, I. K.
, Balaras
, E.
, Schultz
, M. P.
, and Volino
, R. J.
, 2023
, “Secondary Flows in Turbulent Boundary Layers Developing Over Truncated Cone Surfaces
,” J. Fluid Mech.
, 961
, p. A23
. 48.
Schultz
, M. P.
, and Flack
, K. A.
, 2009
, “Turbulent Boundary Layers on a Systematically Varied Rough Wall
,” Phys. Fluids
, 21
(1
), p. 015104
. 49.
Kadivar
, M.
, Tormey
, D.
, and McGranaghan
, G.
, 2021
, “A Review on Turbulent Flow Over Rough Surfaces: Fundamentals and Theories
,” Int. J. Thermofluids
, 10
, p. 100077
. 50.
Zhang
, E.
, Wang
, Z.
, Wu
, W.
, Wang
, X.
, and Liu
, Q.
, 2023
, “Secondary Flow and Streamwise Vortices in Three-Dimensional Staggered Wavy-Wall Turbulence
,” Flow
, 3
, p. E19
. 51.
Ellis
, C. D.
, and Xia
, H.
, 2022
, “Impact of Inflow Turbulence on Large-Eddy Simulation of Film Cooling Flows
,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
, 195
, p. 123172
. 52.
Gul
, M.
, and Ganapathisubramani
, B.
, 2021
, “Revisiting Rough-Wall Turbulent Boundary Layers Over Sand-Grain Roughness
,” J. Fluid Mech.
, 911
, p. A26
. 53.
Mejia-Alvarez
, R.
, and Christensen
, K. T.
, 2013
, “Wall-Parallel Stereo Particle-Image Velocimetry Measurements in the Roughness Sublayer of Turbulent Flow Overlying Highly Irregular Roughness
,” Phys. Fluids
, 25
(11
), p. 115109
. 54.
Barros
, J. M.
, and Christensen
, K. T.
, 2014
, “Observations of Turbulent Secondary Flows in a Rough-Wall Boundary Layer
,” J. Fluid Mech.
, 748
, p. R1
. 55.
Bons
, J. P.
, 2010
, “A Review of Surface Roughness Effects in Gas Turbines
,” ASME J. Turbomach.
, 132
(2
), p. 021004
. 
