Fig. 1 Flow case diagram showing layout, dimensions, roughness extent, and key measurement locations ( a ) and corresponding Clauser parameter distributions ( b ). The zero degree case is shown in bold. Solid lines were obtained at Re c   =   2 × 10 6 , dotted at ... More about this image found in Flow case diagram showing layout, dimensions, roughness extent, and key mea...

Fig. 2 Computational domain layout ( a ), coarse grid ( b ), zoomed view of fine —, medium —, and coarse — grids ( c ). Adapted with permission from Fritsch et al. [ 50 ]. Copyright 2022 by AIAA. More about this image found in Computational domain layout ( a ), coarse grid ( b ), zoomed view of fine —...

Fig. 3 Roughness function as a function of roughness Reynolds number for legacy two-equation and modern Spalart–Allmaras and Menter SST boundary conditions compared with data of Nikuradse [ 1 ] More about this image found in Roughness function as a function of roughness Reynolds number for legacy tw...

Fig. 4 Outer normalized velocity profiles as measured experimentally and as simulated with SA ( a ) and SST ( b ) models with constant k s and increasing freestream Reynolds number for ZPG case More about this image found in Outer normalized velocity profiles as measured experimentally and as simula...

Fig. 5 Viscous normalized velocity profiles as measured experimentally and as simulated with SA and SST models using experimental k s and k s tuned to match Δ u + for the ZPG case More about this image found in Viscous normalized velocity profiles as measured experimentally and as simu...

Fig. 6 Proposed empirical pressure spectrum model shown against experimental data of Fritsch et al. [ 9 ] More about this image found in Proposed empirical pressure spectrum model shown against experimental data ...

Fig. 7 Newly proposed model compared with data of Joseph [ 30 ] for various rough surfaces and Reynolds numbers More about this image found in Newly proposed model compared with data of Joseph [ 30 ] for various rough ...

Fig. 8 Empirical models of Catlett et al. [ 42 ], Joseph et al. [ 43 ], and proposed model shown against experimental data of Fritsch et al. [ 9 ] for ZPG ( a ), APG ( b ), FPG ( c ), and APG–FPG cross ( d ) conditions More about this image found in Empirical models of Catlett et al. [ 42 ], Joseph et al. [ 43 ], and propos...

Fig. 9 ZPG spectra predicted using baseline TNO model from Ref. [ 35 ] with SST and SA data and with new empirical model compared against experiment More about this image found in ZPG spectra predicted using baseline TNO model from Ref. [ 35 ] with SST an...

Fig. 10 Example ZPG velocity spectrum measured at y / δ = 0.55 compared with various versions of the Wilson [ 58 ] generalized model More about this image found in Example ZPG velocity spectrum measured at y / δ = 0.55 compared...

Fig. 11 ZPG spectra predicted using baseline TNO model from Ref. [ 35 ] with SST data and with new empirical model compared against experiment and newly proposed rough wall model using SST and SA data More about this image found in ZPG spectra predicted using baseline TNO model from Ref. [ 35 ] with SST da...

Fig. 12 Pressure spectra as measured and predicted using new rough wall TNO model and new empirical model for ZPG ( a ), APG ( b ), FPG ( c ), and APG–FPG cross ( d ) conditions More about this image found in Pressure spectra as measured and predicted using new rough wall TNO model a...

Fig. 13 Newly proposed empirical and TNO models compared with data of Joseph dense 3 mm hemispheres at 30 m/s [ 30 ] and Joseph et al. empirical model [ 43 ] More about this image found in Newly proposed empirical and TNO models compared with data of Joseph dense ...

Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of experimental system More about this image found in Schematic diagram of experimental system