Vertebrates aim their noses at regions of interest and sniff in order to acquire olfactory trace signals that carry information on food, reproduction, kinship, danger, etc. Invertebrates likewise position antennae in the surrounding fluid to acquire such signals. Some of the fluid dynamics of these natural sensing processes has been examined piecemeal, but the overall topic of sniffing is not well investigated or understood. It is, however, important for several human purposes, especially sampling schemes for sensors to detect chemical and biological traces in the environment. After establishing some background, a general appraisal is given of nature’s accomplishments in the fluid dynamics of sniffing. Opportunities are found for innovation through biomimicry. Since few artificial (“electronic”) noses can currently sniff in the natural sense, ways are considered to help them sniff effectively. Security issues such as explosive trace detection, landmine detection, chemical and biological sniffing, and people sampling are examined. Other sniffing applications including medical diagnosis and leak detection are also considered. Several research opportunities are identified in order to advance this topic of biofluid dynamics. Though written from a fluid dynamics perspective, this review is intended for a broad audience.
1.
Eisenberg
, J. F.
, and Kleiman
, D. G.
, 1972, “Olfactory Communication in Mammals
,” Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst.
0066-4162, 3
, pp. 1
–32
.2.
Zwaardemaker
, H.
, 1895, Die Physiologie des Geruchs
, W. Engelmann
, Leipzig, Germany.3.
Stoddart
, D. M.
, 1980, The Ecology of Vertebrate Olfaction
, Chapman & Hall
, New York, pp. 1
–33
.4.
Axel
, R.
, 1995, “The Molecular Logic of Smell
,” Sci. Am.
0036-8733, 273
(4
), pp. 154
–159
.5.
Doty
, R. L.
, 2001, “Olfaction
,” Annu. Rev. Psychol.
0066-4308, 52
, pp. 423
–452
.6.
Kauer
, J. S.
, and White
, J. E.
, 2001, “Imaging and Coding in the Olfactory System
,” Annu. Rev. Neurosci.
0147-006X, 24
, pp. 963
–979
.7.
Lighthill
, M. J.
, 1975, Mathematical Biofluiddynamics
, SIAM
, Philadelphia.8.
Weinbaum
, S.
, 1996, “Biofluid Mechanics
,” in Research Trends in Fluid Dynamics: Report from US National Commission on Theoretical & Applied Mechanics
, J. L.
Lumley
, ed., Springer
, New York, pp. 296
–309
.9.
Gardner
, J. W.
, and Bartlett
, P. N.
, 1999, Electronic Noses—Principles and Applications
, Oxford University Press
, Oxford.10.
Pearce
, T. C.
, Schiffman
, S. S.
, Nagle
, H. T.
, and Gardner
, J. W.
, eds., 2002, Handbook of Machine Olfaction
, Wiley
, New York.11.
Rouhi
, A. M.
, 1997, “Detecting Illegal Substances
,” Chem. Eng. News
0009-2347, 75
(39
), pp. 24
–29
.12.
National Research Council, 1999,
Chemical and Biological Terrorism: Research and Development to Improve Civilian Medical Response
, National Academy Press
, Washington, DC.13.
Watson
, J. G.
, and Chow
, J. C.
, 2001, “Ambient Air Sampling
,” in Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications
, 2nd Ed., P. A.
Baron
and K.
Willeke
, eds., Wiley
, New York, pp. 821
–844
.14.
Monteith
, L. E.
, and Rubow
, K. L.
, 2001, “Air Movers and Samplers
,” in Air Sampling Instruments for Evaluation of Atmospheric Contaminants
, 9th Ed. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
, Cincinnati, OH, pp. 233
–280
.15.
Singh
, M.
, and Sioutas
, C.
, 2003, “Assessment of Exposure to Airborne Particles
,” in Indoor Environment: Airborne Particles and Settled Dust
, L.
Morowska
and T.
Salthammer
, eds., Wiley
, New York, pp. 374
–386
.16.
Subramaniam
, R. P.
, Richardson
, R. B.
, Morgan
, K. T.
, Kimbell
, J. S.
, and Guilmette
, R. A.
, 1998, “Computational Fluid Dynamics Simulations of Inspiratory Airflow in the Human Nose and Nasopharynx
,” Inhalation Toxicol.
0895-8378, 10
(5
), pp. 473
–502
.17.
Baturin
, V. V.
, 1972, Fundamentals of Industrial Ventilation
, Pergamon
, New York, pp. 12
–24
.18.
Heinsohn
, R. J.
, 1991, Industrial Ventilation
, Wiley
, New York.19.
Heinsohn
, R. J.
, and Cimbala
, J. M.
, 2002, “Ideal Flow
,” in Indoor Air Quality Engineering
, Marcel Dekker
, New York, pp. 517
–580
.20.
Goodfellow
, H. D.
, and Tähti
, E.
, eds., 2001, Industrial Ventilation Design Guidebook
, Elsevier
, New York.21.
Kordyban
, T.
, 1998, Hot Air Rises and Heat Sinks: Everything You Know About Cooling Electronics is Wrong
, ASME
, New York.22.
Remsburg
, R.
, 2001, Thermal Design of Electronic Equipment
, CRC
, Boca Raton.23.
Cox
, C. S.
, 1987, The Aerobiological Pathway of Microorganisms
, Wiley-Interscience
, New York.24.
Clark
, R. P.
, and Cox
, R. N.
, 1973, “The Generation of Aerosols from the Human Body
,” in Airborne Transmission and Airborne Infection: Concepts and Methods
, J. F.
Hers
and K. C.
Winkler
, eds., Wiley
, New York, pp. 413
–426
.25.
Burge
, H. A.
, 1995, “Aerobiology of the Indoor Environment
,” Occup. Med.
0885-114X, 10
(1
), pp. 27
–40
.26.
Higson
, S. P. J.
, 2003, Analytical Chemistry
, Oxford University
, Oxford, UK.27.
Kline
, S. J.
, 1960, “The Importance of Flow Visualization
,” Symposium on Flow Visualization
, ASME
, New York, 1
, pp. 1
–9
.28.
Roshko
, A.
, 1995, “Flow Visualization As a Basic Research Tool
,” in Flow Visualization VII
, Crowder
, J. P.
ed., Begell House
, New York, pp. 983
–994
.29.
Merzkirch
, W.
, 1987, Flow Visualization
, Academic
, New York.30.
Paulsen
, E.
, 1882, “Experimentelle Untersuchungen Über Die Strömungen Der Luft in Der Nasenhöhle
,” Sitzungsber. K. Preuss. Akad. Wiss.
0371-196X, 85
, p. 348ff
.31.
Bojsen-Møller
, F.
, and Fahrenkrug
, J.
, 1971, “Nasal Swell-Bodies and Cyclic Changes in the Air Passage of the Rat and Rabbit Nose
,” J. Anat.
0021-8782, 110
(1
), pp. 25
–37
.32.
Hornung
, D. E.
, Leopold
, D. A.
, Youngentob
, S. L.
, Sheehe
, P. R.
, Gagne
, G. M.
, Thomas
, F. D.
, and Mozell
, M. M.
, 1987, “Airflow Patterns in a Human Nasal Model
,” Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg.
0886-4470, 113
(2
), pp. 169
–172
.33.
Hahn
, I.
, Scherer
, P. W.
, and Mozell
, M. M.
, 1993, “Velocity Profiles Measured for Airflow Through a Large-Scale Model of the Human Nasal Cavity
,” J. Appl. Physiol.
8750-7587, 75
(5
), pp. 2273
–2287
.34.
Keyhani
, K.
, Scherer
, P. W.
, and Mozell
, M. M.
, 1997, “Numerical Simulation of Airflow in the Human Nasal Cavity
,” ASME J. Biomech. Eng.
0148-0731, 117
, pp. 429
–441
.35.
Brueggemann
, J.
, and Jeckstadt
, S.
, 1938, “Über Den Weg Des Luftstromes Durch Die Nase Des Hundes (On the Direction of the Airstream Through the Dog’s Nose)
,” Pflugers Archiv, European Journal of Physiology
, 239
, pp. 293
–303
.36.
Dawes
, J. D. K.
, 1952, “The Course of the Nasal Airstreams
,” J. Laryngol. Otol.
0022-2151, 66
(12
), pp. 583
–593
.37.
Ishida
, H.
, Yamanaka
, T.
, Kushida
, N.
, Nakamoto
, T.
, and Moriizumi
, T.
, 2000, “Study of Real-Time Visualization of Gas/Odor Flow Image Using Gas Sensor Array
,” Sens. Actuators B
0925-4005, 65
(1–3
), pp. 14
–16
.38.
Yamanaka
, T.
, Ishida
, H.
, Nakamoto
, T.
, and Moriizumi
, T.
, 1998, “Analysis of Gas Sensor Transient Response by Visualizing Instantaneous Gas Concentration Using Smoke
,” Sens. Actuators, A
0924-4247, 69
(1
), pp. 77
–81
.39.
Saunders
, C. J.
, and Fletcher
, B.
, 1996, “Jet Enhanced Local Exhaust Ventilation
,” Ann. Occup. Hyg.
0003-4878, 37
(1
), pp. 15
–24
.40.
Teichmann
, H.
, 1959, “Vergleichende Untersuchungen an Der Nase Der Fische (Comparative Investigations on the Nose of the Fish)
,” Z. Morphol. Oekol. Tiere
0372-9389, 43
, pp. 171
–212
.41.
Grasso
, F. W.
, and Basil
, J. A.
, 2002, “How Lobsters, Crayfishes, and Crabs Locate Sources of Odor: Current Perspectives and Future Directions
,” Curr. Opin. Neurobiol.
0959-4388, 12
(6
), pp. 721
–727
.42.
Atema
, J.
, 1996, “Eddy Chemotaxis and Odor Landscapes: Exploration of Nature with Animal Sensors
,” Biol. Bull.
0006-3185, 191
(1
), pp. 129
–138
.43.
Webster
, D. R.
, and Weissburg
, M. J.
, 2001, “Chemosensory Guidance Cues in a Turbulent Chemical Odor Plume
,” Limnol. Oceanogr.
0024-3590, 46
(5
), pp. 1034
–1047
.44.
Stuiver
, M.
, 1958, “Biophysics of the Sense of Smell
,” PhD thesis, University of Groningen, Germany.45.
Schreck
, S.
, Sullivan
, K. J.
, Ho
, C. M.
, and Chang
, H. K.
, 1993, “Correlations Between Flow Resistance and Geometry in a Model of the Human Nose
,” J. Appl. Physiol.
8750-7587, 75
(4
), pp. 1767
–1775
.46.
Settles
, G. S.
, 2001, Schlieren and Shadowgraph Techniques: Visualizing Phenomena in Transparent Media
, 1st Ed., Springer
, New York.47.
Settles
, G. S.
, Kester
, D. A.
, and Dodson-Dreibelbis
, L. J.
, 2003, “The External Aerodynamics of Sniffing
,” in Sensors and Sensing in Biology and Engineering
, F. G.
Barth
et al., eds., Springer
, New York, pp. 323
–355
.48.
Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology, 2004, “
Existing and Potential Standoff Explosives Detection Technologies
,” US National Research Council Report, National Academies Press
, Washington DC.49.
White
, F. M.
, 2002, Fluid Mechanics
, McGraw-Hill
, Boston.50.
Batchelor
, G. K.
, 2000, An Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
, Cambridge University
, Cambridge, UK.51.
Chahine
, A.
, Chahine
, G. L.
, Duraiswami
, R.
, Billard
, J. Y.
, and Nieuwstadt
, F. T. M.
, 1995, “Two-Dimensional Potential Flow Instruction and Analysis on Personal Computers
,” ASME J. Fluids Eng.
0098-2202, 220
, pp. 89
–93
.52.
Kimbell
, J. S.
, Gross
, E. A.
, Joyner
, D. R.
, Godo
, M. N.
, and Morgan
, K. T.
, 1997, “Application of Computational Fluid Dynamics to Regional Dosimetry of Inhaled Chemicals in the Upper Respiratory Tract of the Rat
,” Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.
0041-008X, 121
(2
), pp. 253
–263
.53.
Kimbell
, J. S.
, Godo
, M. N.
, Gross
, E. A.
, Joyner
, D. R.
, Richardson
, R. B.
, and Morgan
, K. T.
, 1997, “Computer Simulation of Inspiratory Airflow in All Regions of the F344 Rat Nasal Passages
,” Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.
0041-008X, 145
(2
), pp. 388
–398
.54.
Kepler
, G. M.
, Richardson
, R. B.
, Morgan
, K. T.
, and Kimbell
, J. S.
, 1998, “Computer Simulation of Inspiratory Nasal Airflow and Inhaled Gas Uptake in a Rhesus Monkey
,” Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.
0041-008X, 150
(1
), pp. 1
–11
.55.
Kimbell
, J. S.
, and Subramaniam
, R. P.
, 2001, “Use of Computational Fluid Dynamics Models for Dosimetry of Inhaled Gases in the Nasal Passages
,” Inhalation Toxicol.
0895-8378, 13
(5
), pp. 325
–334
.56.
Koch
, D. A.
, Arnold
, S.
, Hubler
, M.
, and Montavon
, P. M.
, 2003, “Brachycephalic Syndrome in Dogs
,” Compendium on Continuing Education for the Practicing Veterinarian
, 25
(1
), pp. 48
.57.
Brockmann
, J. E.
, 2001, “Sampling and Transport of Aerosols
,” in Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications
, 2nd Ed., P. A.
Baron
and K.
Willeke
, eds., Wiley
, New York, pp. 143
–195
.58.
Hahn
, I.
, Scherer
, P. W.
, and Mozell
, M. M.
, 1994, “A Mass-Transport Model of Olfaction
,” J. Theor. Biol.
0022-5193, 167
(2
), pp. 115
–128
.59.
Anonymous
, 2001, “Odors
,” in ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook
, American Society of Heating, Ventilation, and Air-Conditioning Engineers
, Atlanta, pp. 13.1
–13.8
.60.
Mozell
, M. M.
, Hornung
, D. E.
, Sheehe
, P. R.
, and Kurtz
, D. B.
, 1986, “What Should be Controlled in Studies of Smell?
,” in Clinical Measurement of Taste and Smell
, H. L.
Meiselman
and R. S.
Rivlin
, eds., MacMillan
, New York, pp. 154
–169
.61.
Zuschneid
, K.
, 1973, “The Olfactory Acuity of the Dog (Die Riechleistung Des Hundes)
,” PhD thesis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Free University of Berlin, Berlin, Germany.62.
Morrison
, E. E.
, 2000, “Canine Detection of Illicit Drugs: Sensory Apparatus Technology
,” Battelle Report A185183, Columbus, OH.63.
Johnson
, B. N.
, Mainland
, J. D.
, and Sobel
, N.
, 2003, “Rapid Olfactory Processing Implicates Subcortical Control of an Olfactomotor System
,” J. Neurophysiol.
0022-3077, 90
(2
), pp. 1084
–1094
.64.
Schreider
, J. P.
, and Raabe
, O. G.
, 1981, “Anatomy of the Nasal-Pharyngeal Airway of Experimental Animals
,” Anat. Rec.
0003-276X, 200
, pp. 195
–205
.65.
Mead
, K. S.
, Koehl
, M. A. R.
, and O’Donnell
, M. J.
, 1999, “Stomatopod Sniffing: the Scaling of Chemosensory Sensillae and Flicking Behavior with Body Size
,” J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol.
0022-0981, 241
(2
), pp. 235
–261
.66.
Vogel
, S.
, 1994, Life in Moving Fluids: The Physical Biology of Flow
, Princeton University
, Princeton, NJ.67.
Olander
, L.
, 2001, “Exhaust Hoods
,” in Industrial Ventilation Design Guidebook
, H. D.
Goodfellow
, and E.
Tähti
, eds., Elsevier
, New York, pp. 814
–916
.68.
Anonymous
, 1999, “Industrial Local Exhaust Systems
,” in ASHRAE Applications Handbook
, ASHRAE
, Atlanta, pp. 29.1
–29.21
.69.
Jackson
, C. N.
, Sherlock
, C. N.
, and Moore
, P. O.
, 1998, “Leak Testing, Part 3: Test Techniques Providing Electronic Indications of Leak Locations
,” in Nondestructive Testing Handbook, Second Edition
, ASNT
, Columbus, OH, 1
, pp. 30
–33
.70.
List
, E. J.
, 1982, “Mechanics of Turbulent Buoyant Jets and Plumes
,” in Turbulent Buoyant Jets and Plumes
, W.
Rodi
, ed., Pergamon
, New York, pp. 1
–68
.71.
Abramovich
, G. N.
, and Schindel
, L.
, 1963, The Theory of Turbulent Jets
, MIT
, Cambridge, MA.72.
Zhivov
, A.
, 2001, “Air Jets
,” in Industrial Ventilation Design Guidebook
, H. D.
Goodfellow
, and E.
Tähti
, eds., Elsevier
, New York, pp. 446
–517
.73.
Glezer
, A.
, and Amitay
, M.
, 2002, “Synthetic Jets
,” Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech.
0066-4189, 34
, pp. 503
–529
.74.
Lai
, H. Z.
, Naughton
, J. W.
, and Lindberg
, W. R.
, 2003, “An Experimental Investigation of Starting Impinging Jets
,” ASME J. Fluids Eng.
0098-2202, 125
(2
), pp. 275
–282
.75.
Glauert
, M. B.
, 1956, “The Wall Jet
,” J. Fluid Mech.
0022-1120, 1
(5
), pp. 625
–643
.76.
Phares
, D. J.
, Smedley
, G. T.
, and Flagan
, R. C.
, 2000, “The Inviscid Impingement of a Jet with Arbitrary Velocity Profile
,” Phys. Fluids
1070-6631, 12
(8
), pp. 2046
–2055
.77.
Smedley
, G. T.
, Phares
, D. J.
, and Flagan
, R. C.
, 1999, “Entrainment of Fine Particles From Surfaces by Gas Jets Impinging at Normal Incidence
,” Exp. Fluids
0723-4864, 26
(4
), pp. 324
–334
.78.
Smedley
, G. T.
, Phares
, D. J.
, and Flagan
, R. C.
, 2001, “Entrainment of Fine Particles From Surfaces by Gas Jets Impinging at Oblique Incidence
,” Exp. Fluids
0723-4864, 30
(2
), pp. 135
–142
.79.
Phares
, D. J.
, Smedley
, G. T.
, and Flagan
, R. C.
, 2000, “The Wall Shear Stress Produced by the Normal Impingement of a Jet on a Flat Surface
,” J. Fluid Mech.
0022-1120, 418
, pp. 351
–375
.80.
Phares
, D. J.
, Smedley
, G. T.
, and Flagan
, R. C.
, 2000, “Effect of Particle Size and Material Properties on Aerodynamic Re-Suspension From Surfaces
,” J. Aerosol Sci.
0021-8502, 31
(11
), pp. 1335
–1353
.81.
Ibrahim
, A. H.
, Dunn
, P. F.
, and Brach
, R. M.
, 2003, “Microparticle Detachment From Surfaces Exposed to Turbulent Air Flow: Controlled Experiments and Modeling
,” J. Aerosol Sci.
0021-8502, 34
(6
), pp. 765
–782
.82.
Ziskind
, G.
, Yarin
, L. P.
, Peles
, S.
, and Gutfinger
, C.
, 2002, “Experimental Investigation of Particle Removal From Surfaces by Pulsed Air Jets
,” Aerosol Sci. Technol.
0278-6826, 36
(5
), pp. 652
–659
.83.
Settles
, G. S.
, Thomas
, M. A.
, Ferree
, H. C.
, Jonassen
, D. R.
, Miller
, J. D.
, and Dodson
, L. J.
, 2005, “The Aerodynamics of a Chemical Trace Detection Portal for Screening People
,” in preparation.84.
Marple
, V. A.
, Olson
, B. A.
, and Rubow
, K. L.
, 2001, “Inertial, Gravitational, Centrifugal, and Thermal Collection Techniques
,” in Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications
, 2nd Ed., P. A.
Baron
and K.
Willeke
, eds., Wiley
, New York, pp. 229
–260
.85.
Baron
, P. A.
, and Willeke
, K.
, 2001, “Gas and Particle Motion
,” in Aerosol Measurement: Principles, Techniques, and Applications
, 2nd Ed., P. A.
Baron
and K.
Willeke
, eds., Wiley
, New York, pp. 61
–82
.86.
Morawska
, L.
, and Salthammer
, T.
, 2003, “Fundamentals of Indoor Particles and Settled Dust
,” in Indoor Environment: Airborne Particles and Settled Dust
, L.
Morowska
and T.
Salthammer
, eds., Wiley
, New York.87.
Feynman
, R. P.
, 1999, “Diffusion
,” in The Feynman Lectures on Physics, Vol. 6, Kinetics and Heat
, Audio Recording, Basic Books
, New York.88.
Stitzel
, S. E.
, Stein
, D. R.
, and Walt
, D. R.
, 2003, “Enhancing Vapor Sensor Discrimination by Mimicking a Canine Nasal Cavity Flow Environment
,” J. Am. Chem. Soc.
0002-7863, 125
(13
), pp. 3684
–3685
.89.
Neuhaus
, W.
, 1981, “The Importance of Sniffing in Canine Olfaction (Die Bedeutung des Schnüffelns für das Riechen des Hundes)
,” Zeitschrift für Saugetierkunde
, 46
, pp. 301
–310
.90.
Vogel
, S.
, 2003, Comparative Biomechanics: Life’s Physical World
, Princeton University
, Princeton, NJ.91.
Anonymous
, 2001, “Mass Transfer
,” in ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook
, ASHRAE
, Atlanta, pp. 5.1
–5.13
.92.
Goldman
, J. A.
, and Koehl
, M. A. R.
, 2001, “Fluid Dynamic Design of Lobster Olfactory Organs: High Speed Kinematic Analysis of Antennule Flicking by Panulirus Argus
,” Chem. Senses
0379-864X, 26
(4
), pp. 385
–398
.93.
Koehl
, M. A. R.
, Koseff
, J. R.
, Crimaldi
, J. P.
, McCay
, M. G.
, Cooper
, T.
, Wiley
, M. B.
, and Moore
, P. A.
, 2001, “Lobster Sniffing: Antennule Design and Hydrodynamic Filtering of Information in an Odor Plume
,” Science
0036-8075, 294
(5548
), pp. 1948
–1951
.94.
Griffy
, T. A.
, 1992, “A Model of Explosive Vapor Concentration II
,” in Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on the Analysis and Detection of Explosives
, J.
Yinon
, ed., Kluwer-Academic
, New York, pp. 503
–511
.95.
Lugt
, H. J.
, 1983, Vortex Flow in Nature and Technology
, Wiley
, New York.96.
Motchkine
, V. S.
, Krasnobaev
, L. Y.
, and Bunker
, S. N.
, Aug. 21, 2003, “Cyclone Sampling Nozzle for an Ion Mobility Spectrometer
,” U.S. Patent App. US2003/0155506A1.97.
Colehour
, J. L.
, and Farquhar
, B. W.
, 1971, “Inlet Vortex
,” J. Aircr.
0021-8669, 8
(1
), pp. 39
–43
.98.
De Siervi
, F.
, Viguier
, H. C.
, Greitzer
, E. M.
, and Tan
, C. S.
, 1982, “Mechanisms of Inlet Vortex Formation
,” J. Fluid Mech.
0022-1120, 124
, pp. 173
–207
.99.
Chen
, P.
, Soundra-Nayagam
, M.
, Bolton
, A. N.
, and Simpson
, H. C.
, 1996, “Unstable Flow in Centrifugal Fans
,” ASME J. Fluids Eng.
0098-2202, 118
(1
), pp. 128
–133
.100.
Stong
, C. L.
, 1971, “Experiments With Wind: A Pendulum Anemometer and Miniature Tornadoes
,” Sci. Am.
0036-8733, 224
(10
), pp. 108
–112
.101.
Lippmann
, M.
, 2001, “Filters and Filter Holders
,” in Air Sampling Instruments for Evaluation of Atmospheric Contaminants
, 9th Ed., American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
, Cincinnati, OH, pp. 281
–314
.102.
Hering
, S. V.
, 2001, “Impactors, Cyclones, and Other Particle Collectors
,” in Air Sampling Instruments for Evaluation of Atmospheric Contaminants
, 9th Ed., American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
, Cincinnati, OH, pp. 315
–375
.103.
Johnston
, J. M.
, Morrison
, E. E.
, and Boussom
, T. M.
, 2002, “The Role of Particles in Canine Olfactory Detection
,” unpublished.104.
Chang
, M. C.
, Kim
, S.
, and Sioutas
, C.
, 1999, “Experimental Studies on Particle Impaction and Bounce: Effects of Substrate Design and Material
,” Atmos. Environ.
1352-2310, 33
(15
), pp. 2313
–2322
.105.
Misra
, C.
, Geller
, M. D.
, Shah
, P.
, Sioutas
, C.
, and Solomon
, P. A.
, 2001, “Development and Evaluation of a Continuous Coarse (PM10-PM2.5) Particle Monitor
,” J. Air Waste Manage. Assoc.
1096-2247, 51
(9
), pp. 1309
–1317
.106.
Macher
, J. M.
, and Burge
, H. A.
, 2001, “Sampling Biological Aerosols
,” in Air Sampling Instruments for Evaluation of Atmospheric Contaminants
, 9th Ed., American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
, Cincinnati, OH, pp. 662
–701
.107.
Solomon
, W. R.
, 2003, “How Ill the Wind? Issues in Aeroallergen Sampling
,” J. Allergy Clin. Immunol.
0091-6749, 112
(1
), pp. 3
–8
.108.
Mehta
, S. K.
, Bell-Robinson
, D. M.
, Groves
, T. O.
, Stetzenbach
, L. D.
, and Pierson
, D. L.
, 2000, “Evaluation of Portable Air Samplers for Monitoring Airborne Culturable Bacteria
,” Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.
0002-8894, 61
(6
), pp. 850
–854
.109.
Lacey
, J.
, 1997, “Guest Editorial: Sampling and Rapid Assay of Bioaerosols
,” J. Aerosol Sci.
0021-8502, 28
(3
), pp. 345
–348
.110.
Griffiths
, W. D.
, Stewart
, I. W.
, Futter
, S. J.
, Upton
, S. L.
, and Mark
, D.
, 1997, “Development of Sampling Methods for the Assessment of Indoor Bioaerosols
,” J. Aerosol Sci.
0021-8502, 28
(3
), pp. 437
–457
.111.
Heinsohn
, R. J.
, and Cimbala
, J. M.
, 2002, Indoor Air Quality Engineering
, Marcel Dekker
, New York.112.
Wallace
, L. A.
, 2001, “Human Exposure to Volatile Organic Pollutants: Implications for Indoor Air Studies
,” Annu. Rev. Energy Envir.
, 26
, pp. 269
–301
.113.
Anonymous
, 2001, “Indoor Environmental Health
,” in ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook
, ASHRAE
, Atlanta, GA, pp. 9.1
–9.20
.114.
Thomas
, K. W.
, Pellizzari
, E. D.
, Clayton
, C. A.
, Whitaker
, D. A.
, Shores
, R. C.
, Spengler
, J.
, Ozkaynak
, H.
, Froelich
, S. E.
, and Wallace
, L. A.
, 1993, “Particle Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (PTEAM) 1990 Study—Method Performance and Data Quality for Personal, Indoor, and Outdoor Monitoring
,” J. Expo Anal Environ. Epidemiol.
1053-4245, 3
(2
), pp. 203
–226
.115.
Clayton
, C. A.
, Perritt
, R. L.
, Pellizzari
, E. D.
, Thomas
, K. W.
, Whitmore
, R. W.
, Wallace
, L. A.
, Ozkaynak
, H.
, and Spengler
, J. D.
, 1993, “Particle Total Exposure Assessment Methodology (PTEAM) Study-Distributions of Aerosol and Elemental Concentrations in Personal, Indoor, and Outdoor Air Samples in a Southern California Community
,” J. Expo Anal Environ. Epidemiol.
1053-4245, 3
(2
), pp. 227
–250
.116.
Ozkaynak
, H.
, Xue
, J.
, Spengler
, J.
, Wallace
, L.
, Pellizzari
, E.
, and Jenkins
, P.
, 1996, “Personal Exposure to Airborne Particles and Metals: Results From the Particle Team Study in Riverside, California
,” J. Expo Anal Environ. Epidemiol.
1053-4245, 6
(1
), pp. 57
–78
.117.
Rodes
, C. E.
, Kamens
, R. M.
, and Wiener
, R. W.
, 1991, “The Significance and Characteristics of the Personal Activity Cloud on Exposure Assessment Measurements for Indoor Contaminants
,” Indoor Air
0905-6947, 2
, pp. 123
–145
.118.
Wallace
, L. A.
, 1993, “The TEAM Studies
,” EPA Journal
, 19
(4
).119.
Lewis
, H. E.
, Foster
, A. R.
, Mullan
, B. J.
, Cox
, R. N.
, and Clark
, R. P.
, 1969, “Aerodynamics of the Human Microenvironment
,” Lancet
0140-6736, 322
(7609
), pp. 1273
–1277
.120.
Clark
, R. P.
, and Edholm
, O. G.
, 1985, Man and His Thermal Environment
, E. Arnold
, London.121.
Homma
, H.
, and Yakiyama
, M.
, 1991, “Examination of Free Convection Around Occupant’s Body Caused by Its Metabolic Heat
,” ASHRAE Trans.
0001-2505, 94
Part 1(3118), pp. 104
–124
.122.
Clark
, R. P.
, and Cox
, R. N.
, 1974, “An Application of Aeronautical Techniques to Physiology. 2. Particle Transport within the Human Microenvironment
,” Med. Biol. Eng.
0025-696X, 12
(3
), pp. 275
–279
.123.
Gowadia
, H. A.
, 2000, “The Natural Sampling of Airborne Trace Signals Associated with the Human Body
,” PhD thesis, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.124.
Gowadia
, H. A.
, and Settles
, G. S.
, 2001, “The Natural Sampling of Airborne Trace Signals From Explosives Concealed Upon the Human Body
,” J. Forensic Sci.
0022-1198, 46
(6
), pp. 1324
–1331
.125.
Syrotuck
, W. G.
, 1972, Scent and the Scenting Dog
, Arner
, Rome, NY.126.
May
, K. R.
, and Pomeroy
, N. P.
, 1973, “Bacterial Dispersion from the Body Surface
,” in Airborne Transmission and Airborne Infection: Concepts and Methods
, J. F.
Hers
and K. C.
Winkler
, eds., Wiley
, New York, pp. 426
–432
.127.
Clark
, R. P.
, and Shirley
, S. G.
, 1973, “Identification of Skin in Airborne Particulate Matter
,” Nature (London)
0028-0836, 246
(5427
), pp. 39
–40
.128.
Clark
, R. P.
, 1974, “Skin Scales Among Airborne Particles
,” J. Hyg. (Lond)
0022-1724, 72
(1
), pp. 47
–51
.129.
Sykes
, B.
, 2001, The Seven Daughters of Eve
, Norton
, New York.130.
Murakami
, S.
, 2002, “CFD Study on the Micro-Climate Around the Human Body with Inhalation and Exhalation
,” in Proceedings of ROOMVENT 2002, 8th International Conference on Air Distribution in Rooms
, Copenhagen, 8–11, Technical University of Denmark.131.
Renstrom
, A.
, Karlsson
, A. S.
, and Tovey
, E.
, 2002, “Nasal Air Sampling used for the Assessment of Occupational Allergen Exposure and the Efficacy of Respiratory Protection
,” Clin. Exp. Allergy
0954-7894, 32
(12
), pp. 1769
–1775
.132.
Misra
, C.
, Singh
, M.
, Shen
, S.
, Sioutas
, C.
, and Hall
, P. A.
, 2002, “Development and Evaluation of a Personal Cascade Impactor Sampler (PCIS)
,” J. Aerosol Sci.
0021-8502, 33
(7
), pp. 1027
–1047
.133.
Hauck
, B. C.
, Grinshpun
, S. A.
, Reponen
, A.
, Reponen
, T.
, Willeke
, K.
, and Bornschein
, R. L.
, 1997, “Field Testing of New Aerosol Sampling Method With a Porous Curved Surface As Inlet
,” Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.
0002-8894, 58
(10
), pp. 713
–719
.134.
Aizenberg
, V.
, Choe
, K.
, Grinshpun
, S. A.
, Willeke
, K.
, and Baron
, P. A.
, 2001, “Evaluation of Personal Aerosol Samples Challenged with Large Particles
,” J. Aerosol Sci.
0021-8502, 32
(6
), pp. 779
–793
.135.
Guffey
, S. E.
, Flanagan
, M. E.
, and van Belle
, G.
, 2001, “Air Sampling at the Chest and Ear As Representative of the Breathing Zone
,” Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.
0002-8894, 62
(4
), pp. 416
–427
.136.
Fletcher
, B.
, and Johnson
, A. E.
, 1989, “Comparison of Personal and Area Concentration of Measurements, and the Use of a Mannequin in Sampling
,” Proceedings Ventilation ’88
, Vincent
, J. H.
, ed., BOHS
, London
, pp. 161
–167
.137.
Fetterolf
, D. D.
, and Clark
, T. D.
, 1993, “Detection of Trace Explosive Evidence by Ion Mobility Spectrometry
,” J. Forensic Sci.
0022-1198, 38
(1
), pp. 28
–39
.138.
Baret
, G.
, and Gevaud
, R.
, Aug. 30, 1994, “Helium Leak Detector
,” U.S. Patent 5,341,671.139.
Jackson
, C. N.
, Sherlock
, C. N.
, and Moore
, P. O.
, 1998, “Leak Testing, Part 5: Sampling Detector Probe Testing of Systems Pressurized with Helium Tracer Gas
,” in Nondestructive Testing Handbook
, 2nd Ed., ASNT
, Columbus, OH, 1
, pp. 478
–489
.140.
DeSorbo
, M. A.
, 2001, “Fingerprinting Particles ‘Automatically’
,” Cleanrooms
, 15
(10
), pp. 1
–54
.141.
Anonymous
, 2004, “Portable Gas Sample Extraction Probe PSP4000-H/C/T
,” M&C Products Analysertechnik Gmbh, Ratingen, Germany.142.
Grasmeyer
, J. M.
, and Keennon
, M. T.
, 2001, “Development of the Black Widow Micro Air Vehicle
,” AIAA Paper No. 2001-0127.143.
Mueller
, T. J.
, and DeLaurier
, J. D.
, 2003, “Aerodynamics of Small Vehicles
,” Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech.
0066-4189, 35
, pp. 89
–111
.144.
Anderson
, G. P.
, King
, K. D.
, Cuttino
, D. S.
, Whelan
, J. P.
, Ligler
, F. S.
, MacKrell
, J. F.
, Bovais
, C. S.
, Indyke
, D. K.
, and Foch
, R. J.
, 1999, “Biological Agent Detection With the Use of an Airborne Biosensor
,” Field Anal. Chem. Tech., 3
(4–5
), pp. 307
–314
.145.
Ligler
, F. S.
, Anderson
, G. P.
, Davidson
, P. T.
, Foch
, R. J.
, Ives
, J. T.
, King
, K. D.
, Page
, G.
, Stenger
, D. A.
, and Whelan
, J. P.
, 1998, “Remote Sensing Using an Airborne Biosensor
,” Environ. Sci. Technol.
0013-936X, 32
, pp. 2461
–2466
.146.
Brune
, W. H.
, Faloona
, I. C.
, Tan
, D.
, Weinheimer
, A. J.
, Campos
, T.
, Ridley
, B. A.
, Vay
, S. A.
, Collins
, J. E.
, Sachse
, G. W.
, Jaegle
, L.
, and Jacob
, D. J.
, 1998, “Airborne in-Situ OH and HO2 Observations in the Cloud-Free Troposphere and Lower Stratosphere During SUCCESS
,” Geophys. Res. Lett.
0094-8276, 25
(10
), pp. 1701
–1704
.147.
Porter
, J. N.
, Clarke
, A. D.
, Ferry
, G.
, and Pueschel
, R. F.
, 1992, “Aircraft Studies of Size-Dependent Aerosol Sampling Through Inlets
,” J. Geophys. Res., [Atmos.]
0148-0227, 97
(D4
), pp. 3815
–3824
.148.
Sheridan
, P. J.
, and Norton
, R. B.
, 1998, “Determination of the Passing Efficiency for Aerosol Chemical Species Through a Typical Aircraft-Mounted, Diffuser-Type Aerosol Inlet System
,” J. Geophys. Res., [Atmos.]
0148-0227, 103
(D7
), pp. 8215
–8225
.149.
Reed
, R. D.
, 1978, “High-Flying Mini-Sniffer RPV—Mars Bound
,” Astronaut. Aeronaut.
0004-6213, 16
(6
), pp. 26
–39
.150.
Spedding
, G. R.
, and Lissaman
, P. B. S.
, 1998, “Technical Aspects of Microscale Flight Systems
,” Journal of Avian Biology
, 29
(4
), pp. 458
–468
.151.
Singh
, H.
, Jacob
, D.
, Pfister
, L.
, and Crawford
, J.
, 2002, “INTEX-NA: Intercontinental Chemical Transport Experiment—North America
,” National Aeronautics and Space Administration While Paper, http://cloud1.arc.nasa.gov/intex-na/overview/white̱paper.pdfhttp://cloud1.arc.nasa.gov/intex-na/overview/white̱paper.pdf.152.
Kiel
, G.
, 1935, “Total-Head Meter with Small Sensitivity to Yaw
,” National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Technical Memorandum 775
, http://naca.larc.nasa.gov/reports/1935/naca-tm-775/http://naca.larc.nasa.gov/reports/1935/naca-tm-775/153.
Cain
, S. A.
, Ram
, M.
, and Woodward
, S.
, 1998, “Qualitative and Quantitative Wind Tunnel Measurements of the Airflow Through a Shrouded Airborne Aerosol Sampling Probe
,” J. Aerosol Sci.
0021-8502, 29
(9
), pp. 1157
–1169
.154.
Soderman
, P. T.
, Hazen
, N. L.
, and Brune
, W. H.
, 1991, “Aerodynamic Design of Gas and Aerosol Samplers for Aircraft
,” National Aeronautics and Space Administration Technical Memorandum 103854.155.
Sutton
, O. G.
, 1953, Micrometeorology
, McGraw-Hill
, New York.156.
Arya
, P. S.
, 2001, Introduction to Micrometeorology
, Academic
, New York.157.
DeBlieu
, J.
, 1998, Wind: How Air Flow Has Shaped Life, Myth, and the Land
, Houghton Mifflin
, Boston, MA.158.
Shivik
, J. A.
, 2002, “Odor-Adsorptive Clothing, Environmental Factors, and Search-Dog Ability
,” Wildlife Soc. Bull., 30
(3
), pp. 721
–727
.159.
Schouest
, L. P.
, and Miller
, T. A.
, 1994, “Automated Pheromone Traps Show Male Pink-Bollworm (Lepidoptera, Gelechiidae) Mating Response Is Dependent on Weather Conditions
,” J. Econ Entomol.
0022-0493, 87
(4
), pp. 965
–974
.160.
Anonymous
, 2001, “Airflow Around Buildings
,” in ASHRAE Fundamentals Handbook
, ASHRAE
, Atlanta, GA, pp. 16.1
–16.12
.161.
Vander Wall
, S. B.
, 1998, “Foraging Success of Granivorous Rodents: Effects of Variation in Seed and Soil Water on Olfaction
,” Ecology
0012-9658, 79
(1
), pp. 233
–241
.162.
Jenkins
, T. F.
, Walsh
, M. E.
, Miyares
, P. H.
, Kopczinski
, J. A.
, Ranney
, T. A.
, George
, V.
, Pennington
, J. C.
, and Berry
, T. E.
, 2000, “Analysis of Explosives-Related Chemical Signatures in Soil Samples Collected Near Buried Land Mines
,” U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Report ERDC TR-00-5, Hanover, NH.163.
Turner
, J. S.
, 1973, Buoyancy Effects in Fluids
, Cambridge University
, Cambridge, UK.164.
List
, E. J.
, 1982, “Turbulent Jets and Plumes
,” Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech.
0066-4189, 14
, pp. 189
–212
.165.
Scorer
, R. S.
, 1958, Natural Aerodynamics
, Pergamon
, New York.166.
Settles
, G. S.
, and Kester
, D. A.
, 2001, “Aerodynamic Sampling for Landmine Trace Detection
,” in Proc. SPIE—Detection and Remediation Technologies for Mines and Minelike Targets
, VI, Dubey
, A. C.
, et al., eds., International Society for Optical Engineering
, Bellingham
, WA, 4394
, pp. 890
–898
.167.
Mollendorf
, J. C.
, Arif
, H.
, and Ajiniran
, E. B.
, 1996, “Developing Flow and Transport Above a Suddenly Heated Horizontal Surface in Water
,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer
0017-9310, 27
(2
), pp. 273
–289
.168.
Carde
, R. T.
, 1996, “Odour Plumes and Odour-Mediated Flight in Insects
,” in Ciba Foundation Symposium on Olfaction in Mosquito-Host Interactions
, Associated Scientific
, Amsterdam
, pp. 54
–70
.169.
Ishida
, H.
, and Moriizumi
, T.
, 2003, “Machine Olfaction for Mobile Robots
,” in Handbook of Machine Olfaction
, T. C.
Pearce
et al., eds., Wiley
, New York, pp. 399
–417
.170.
Weissburg
, M. J.
, 2000, “The Fluid Dynamical Context of Chemosensory Behavior
,” Biol. Bull.
0006-3185, 198
(2
), pp. 188
–202
.171.
Murlis
, J.
, Willis
, M. A.
, and Carde
, R. T.
, 2000, “Spatial and Temporal Structures of Pheromone Plumes in Fields and Forests
,” Phys. Entomol., 25
(3
), pp. 211
–222
.172.
Vickers
, N. J.
, 2000, “Mechanisms of Animal Navigation in Odor Plumes
,” Biol. Bull.
0006-3185, 198
(2
), pp. 203
–212
.173.
Finelli
, C. M.
, Pentcheff
, N. D.
, Zimmer-Faust
, R. K.
, and Wethey
, D. S.
, 1999, “Odor Transport in Turbulent Flows: Constraints on Animal Navigation
,” Limnol. Oceanogr.
0024-3590, 44
(4
), pp. 1056
–1071
.174.
Moore
, P. A.
, and Atema
, J.
, 1991, “Spatial Information in the Three-Dimensional Fine Structure of an Aquatic Odor Plume
,” Biol. Bull.
0006-3185, 181
(12
), pp. 408
–418
.175.
Moore
, P. A.
, Zimmer-Faust
, R. K.
, Bement
, S. L.
, Weissburg
, M. J.
, Parrish
, J. M.
, and Gerhardt
, G. A.
, 1992, “Measurement of Microscale Patchiness in a Turbulent Aquatic Odor Plume Using a Semiconductor-Based Microprobe
,” Biol. Bull.
0006-3185, 183
(8
), pp. 138
–142
.176.
Koehl
, M. A. R.
, 1996, “Small-Scale Fluid Dynamics of Olfactory Antennae
,” Marine Freshwater Behav. Physiol.
, 27
(2–3
), pp. 127
–141
.177.
Mead
, K. S.
, Wiley
, M. B.
, Koehl
, M. A. R.
, and Koseff
, J. R.
, 2003, “Fine-Scale Patterns of Odor Encounter by the Antennules of Mantis Shrimp Tracking Turbulent Plumes in Wave-Affected and Unidirectional Flow
,” J. Exp. Biol.
0022-0949, 206
(1
), pp. 181
–193
.178.
Murlis
, J.
, Elkington
, J. S.
, and Carde
, R. T.
, 1992, “Odor Plumes and How Insects Use Them
,” Annu. Rev. Entomol.
0066-4170, 37
, pp. 505
–532
.179.
Weissburg
, M. J.
, and Zimmer-Faust
, R. K.
, 1993, “Life and Death in Moving Fluids: Hydrodynamic Effects on Chemosensory-Mediated Predation
,” Ecology
0012-9658, 74
, pp. 1428
–1443
.180.
Geier
, M.
, Bosch
, O. J.
, and Boeckh
, J.
, 1999, “Influence of Odour Plume Structure on Upwind Flight of Mosquitoes Towards Hosts
,” J. Exp. Biol.
0022-0949, 202
(12
), pp. 1639
–1648
.181.
Ishida
, H.
, Nakamoto
, T.
, and Moriizumi
, T.
, 1998, “Remote Sensing of Gas/Odor Source Location and Concentration Distribution Using Mobile System
,” Sens. Actuators B
0925-4005, 49
(1–2
), pp. 52
–57
.182.
Ishida
, H.
, Nakamoto
, T.
, Moriizumi
, T.
, Kikas
, T.
, and Janata
, J.
, 2001, “Plume-Tracking Robots: A New Application of Chemical Sensors
,” Biol. Bull.
0006-3185, 200
(2
), pp. 222
–226
.183.
Deveza
, R.
, Thiel
, D.
, Russell
, A.
, and Mackay-Sim
, A.
, 1994, “Odor Sensing for Robot Guidance
,” Int. J. Robot. Res.
0278-3649, 13
, pp. 232
–239
.184.
Li
, W.
, Farrell
, J. A.
, and Carde
, R. T.
, 2001, “Tracking of Fluid-Advected Odor Plumes: Strategies Inspired by Insect Orientation to Pheromone
,” Adaptive Behavior
, 9
(3–4
), pp. 143
–170
.185.
Dusenbery
, D. B.
, 2003, “Mechanisms for Gradient Following
,” in Sensors and Sensing in Biology and Engineering
, Springer-Verlag
, Vienna, Chap. 21, pp. 291
–303
.186.
Grasso
, F.
, Consi
, T.
, Mountain
, D.
, and Atema
, J.
, 1996, “Locating Odor Sources in Turbulence with a Lobster Inspired Robot
,” in From Animals to Animats: Proceedings of the International Conference on Simulation Adaptive Behavior
, P.
Maes
et al., eds., MIT
, Cambridge, MA, pp. 104
–112
.187.
Anonymous
, 2003, “Following Toxic Clouds: Science and Assumptions in Plume Modeling
” Hearing Before Subcommittee on National Security, Emerging Threats & International Relations, Committee on Government Reform, U.S. House of Representatives, 108th Congress, 1st Session, Serial No. 108-91, US GPO Report 1016-A, http://purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS47967http://purl.access.gpo.gov/GPO/LPS47967188.
Sharan
, M.
, and Gopalakrishnan
, S. G.
, 1997, “Bhopal Gas Accident: a Numerical Simulation of the Gas Dispersion Event
,” Environ. Model. Software, 12
(2–3
), pp. 135
–141
.189.
Gudiksen
, P. H.
, Harvey
, T. F.
, and Lange
, R.
, 1989, “Chernobyl Source Term, Atmospheric Dispersion, and Dose Estimation
,” Health Phys.
0017-9078, 57
(5
), pp. 697
–706
.190.
List
, E. J.
, 1996, “Environmental Fluid Mechanics
,” Research Trends in Fluid Dynamics: Report from US National Commission on Theoretical & Applied Mechanics
, J. L.
Lumley
ed., Springer
, New York, pp. 148
–166
.191.
Sullivan
, T. J.
, Ellis
, J. S.
, Foster
, C. S.
, Foster
, K. T.
, Baskett
, R. L.
, Nasstrom
, J. S.
, and Schalk
, W. W.
, 1993, “Atmospheric Release Advisory Capability-Real-Time Modeling of Airborne Hazardous Materials
,” Bull. Am. Meteorol. Soc.
0003-0007, 74
(12
), pp. 2343
–2361
.192.
Cowan
, I. R.
, Castro
, I. P.
, and Robins
, A. G.
, 1997, “Numerical Considerations for Simulations of Flow and Dispersion Around Buildings
,” J. Wind. Eng. Ind. Aerodyn.
0167-6105, 67–68
, pp. 535
–545
.193.
Boris
, J.
, 2002, “The Threat of Chemical and Biological Terrorism: Preparing a Response
,” Comput. Sci. Eng.
1521-9615, 4
(2
), pp. 22
–32
.194.
Negus
, V. E.
, 1958, The Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of the Nose and Paranasal Sinuses
, Livingstone
, London.195.
Bang
, B. G.
, 1971, “Functional Anatomy of the Olfactory System in 23 Orders of Birds
,” Acta Anat. Suppl. (Basel)
0365-0332, 79
, pp. 1
–76
.196.
Stacey
, M. T.
, Mead
, K. S.
, and Koehl
, M. A. R.
, 2002, “Molecule Capture by Olfactory Antennules: Mantis Shrimp
,” J. Math. Biol.
0303-6812, 44
(1
), pp. 1
–30
.197.
U.S. Department of Agriculture
, 2004, “Integrated Taxonomic Information System On-Line Database
,” http://www.itis.usda.govhttp://www.itis.usda.gov.198.
Arnason
, U.
, Adegoke
, J. A.
, Bodin
, K.
, Born
, E. W.
, Esa
, Y. B.
, Gullberg
, A.
, Nilsson
, M.
, Short
, R. V.
, Xu
, X. F.
, and Janke
, A.
, 2002, “Mammalian Mitogenomic Relationships and the Root of the Eutherian Tree
,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
0027-8424, 99
(12
), pp. 8151
–8156
.199.
Carroll
, R. L.
, 1997, Patterns and Processes of Vertebrate Evolution
, Cambridge University
, Cambridge, England.200.
Wayne
, R. K.
, 1993, “Molecular Evolution of the Dog Family
,” Trends Genet.
0168-9525, 9
(6
), pp. 218
–224
.201.
International Committee on Veterinary Gross Anatomical Nomenclature
, 1972, Nomina Anatomica Veterinaria
, World Association of Veterinary Anatomists
, New York.202.
Wayne
, R. K.
, Leonard
, J. A.
, and Cooper
, A.
, 1999, “Full of Sound and Fury: The Recent History of Ancient DNA
,” Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst.
0066-4162, 30
, pp. 457
–477
.203.
Vogel
, S.
, 1994, “Nature’s Pumps
,” Am. Sci.
0003-0996, 82
(5
), pp. 464
–471
.204.
Benyus
, J. M.
, 1997, Biomimicry
, William Morrow & Co.
, New York.205.
Moniz
, E. J.
, and Baldeswieler
, J. D.
, 2003, “Approaches to Combat Terrorism (ACT): Opportunities for Basic Research
,” National Science Foundation, http://www.mitre.org/public/act/10̱22̱final.pdfhttp://www.mitre.org/public/act/10̱22̱final.pdf206.
Negus
, V. E.
, 1960, “Further Observations on the Air-Conditioning Mechanism of the Nose
,” Ann. R. Coll. Surg. Engl.
0035-8843, 27
, pp. 171
–204
.207.
Moulton
, D. G.
, 1967, “Olfaction in Mammals
,” Am. Zool.
0003-1569, 7
, pp. 421
–429
.208.
Hillenius
, W. J.
, 1992, “The Evolution of Nasal Turbinates and Mammalian Endothermy
,” Paleobiology
0094-8373, 18
, pp. 17
–29
.209.
Geist
, H. R.
, 2000, “Nasal Respiratory Turbinate Function in Birds
,” Physiological and Biochemical Zoology
, 73
(5
), pp. 581
–589
.210.
Becker
, R. F.
, and King
, J. E.
, 1957, “Delineation of the Nasal Airstreams in the Living Dog
,” Arch. Otolaryngol.
0003-9977, 65
(5
), pp. 428
–436
.211.
Neuhaus
, W.
, 1953, “Über die Riechschärfe des Hundes für Fettsäuren
,” Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Physiologie, 35
, pp. 527
–552
.212.
Neuhaus
, W.
, 1955, “Die Unterscheidung von Luftquantitaeten bei Mensch und Hund nach Versuchen Mit Buttersäure
,” Zeitschrift für Vergleichende Physiologie, 37
, pp. 234
–252
.213.
McCartney
, W.
, 1968, Olfaction and Odours: An Osphrésiological Essay
, Springer-Verlag
, Berlin.214.
Johnston
, J. M.
, Myers
, L. J.
, Waggoner
, L. P.
, and Williams
, M.
, 1994, “Determination of Canine Olfactory Thesholds using Operant Laboratory Methods
,” Proceedings Substance Detection Systems
, Proc. SPIE
0277-786X, 2092
, pp. 238
–243
.215.
Johnston
, J. M.
, Williams
, M.
, Waggoner
, L. P.
, Edge
, C. C.
, Dugan
, R. E.
, and Hallowell
, S. F.
, 1998, “Canine Detection Odor Signatures for Mine-Related Explosives
,” in Proceedings of SPIE, Detection Remediation Technology for Mines and Minelike Targets III
, Proc. SPIE
0277-786X, 3392
, Part 1, pp. 490
–501
.216.
Williams
, M.
, Johnston
, J. M.
, Cicoria
, M.
, Paletz
, E.
, Waggoner
, L. P.
, Edge
, C. C.
, and Hallowell
, S. F.
, 1998, “Canine Detection Odor Signatures for Explosives
,” Proc. SPIE
0277-786X, 3575
, pp. 291
–301
.217.
Williams
, M.
, Johnston
, J. M.
, Cicoria
, M.
, Paletz
, E.
, Waggoner
, L. P.
, Edge
, C. C.
, and Hallowell
, S. F.
, 1998, “Effects of Extraneous Odors on Canine Detection
,” Proc. SPIE
0277-786X, 3575
, pp. 355
–362
.218.
Thesen
, A.
, Steen
, J. B.
, and Doving
, K. B.
, 1993, “Behaviour of Dogs During Olfactory Tracking
,” J. Exp. Biol.
0022-0949, 180
, pp. 247
–251
.219.
Steen
, J. B.
, Mohus
, I.
, Kvesetberg
, T.
, and Walloe
, L.
, 1996, “Olfaction in Bird Dogs During Hunting
,” Acta Physiol. Scand.
0001-6772, 157
(1
), pp. 115
–119
.220.
Evans
, H. E.
, 1993, Miller’s Anatomy of the Dog
, Saunders
, Philadelphia.221.
Anderson
, W.
, Anderson
, B. G.
, and Smith
, B. J.
, 1994, Atlas of Canine Anatomy
, Lea & Febiger
, Philadelphia.222.
Thomas
, E. M.
, 1993, The Hidden Life of Dogs
, Houghton Mifflin
, Boston, MA.223.
Johnston
, R. E.
, and Bhorade
, A.
, 1998, “Perception of Scent Over-Marks by Golden Hamsters (Mesocricetus Auratus): Novel Mechanisms for Determining Which Individual’s Mark is on Top
,” J. Comp., Psych.
0093-4127, 112
(3
), pp. 230
–243
.224.
Ferkin
, M. H.
, Dunsavage
, J.
, and Johnston
, R. E.
, 1999, “What Kind of Information do Meadow Voles, Microtus Pennsylvanicus, Use to Distinguish Between the Top and Bottom Scent of an Over-Mark?
,” J. Comp., Psych.
0093-4127, 113
(1
), pp. 43
–51
.225.
Achter
, E. K.
, Hobbs
, J. R.
, Fine
, D. H.
, Dionne
, B. C.
, and Rounbehler
, D. P.
, 1986, “Vapor Pressure of Explosives
,” J. Energ. Mater.
0737-0652, 4
(1–4
), pp. 447
–472
.226.
Johnson
, W. E.
, and O’Brien
, S. J.
, 1997, “Phylogenetic Reconstruction of the Felidae Using 16S RRNA and NADH-5 Mitochondrial Genes
,” J. Mol. Evol.
0022-2844, 44
(Suppl 1), pp. S98
–S116
.227.
Clifford
, A. B.
, and Witmer
, L. M.
, 2004, “Case Studies in Novel Narial Anatomy: 2. The Enigmatic Nose of Moose (Artiodactyla: Cervidae: Alces Alces)
,” J. Zool.
0022-5460, 262
, pp. 339
–360
.228.
Shoshani
, J.
, 1997, “It’s a Nose! It’s a Hand! Its an Elephants’ Trunk!
,” Natural History
, 106
(10
), pp. 37
–43
.229.
Mariappa
, D.
, 1986, Anatomy and Histology of the Indian Elephant
, Indira Publishing House
, Oak Park, MI.230.
Glebovskii
, V. D.
, and Marevskaya
, A. P.
, 1968, “Participation of Muscles of the Nostrils in Olfactory Analysis and Respiration in Rabbits
,” Fiziol. Zh.
0201-8489, 54
(11
), pp. 1278
–1286
.231.
Le Guerer
, A.
, 1992, Scent: The Essential and Mysterious Powers of Smell
, Turtle Bay Books/Random House
, New York.232.
Stoddart
, D. M.
, 1990, The Scented Ape: The Biology and Culture of Human Odour
, Cambridge University
, Cambridge, England.233.
Proetz
, A. W.
, 1941, Essays on the Applied Physiology of the Nose
, Annals Publishing Co.
, St. Louis, Mo.234.
Eccles
, R.
, 2000, “Nasal Airflow in Health and Disease
,” Acta Oto-Laryngol.
0001-6489, 120
(5
), pp. 580
–595
.235.
Cole
, P.
, 2000, “Biophysics of Nasal Airflow: A Review
,” Am. J. Rhinol.
1050-6586, 14
(4
), pp. 245
–249
.236.
Lin
, S. J.
, and Danahey
, D. G.
, 2002, “Nasal Aerodynamics
,” eMedicine
, 3
(4
).237.
Zimmer
, C.
, 2002, “The Rise and Fall of the Nasal Empire
,” Natural History
, 111
(5
), pp. 32
–35
.238.
Shepherd
, G. M.
, 2004, “The Human Sense of Smell: Are We Better Than We Think?
,” PLoS Biology
, 2
(5
), pp. 572
–575
.239.
Haselton
, F. R.
, and Sperandio
, P. G. N.
, 1988, “Convective Exchange Between the Nose and the Atmosphere
,” J. Appl. Physiol.
8750-7587, 64
(6
), pp. 2575
–2581
.240.
Keyhani
, K.
, Scherer
, P. W.
, and Mozell
, M. M.
, 1997, “A Numerical Model of Nasal Odorant Transport for the Analysis of Human Olfaction
,” J. Theor. Biol.
0022-5193, 186
(3
), pp. 279
–301
.241.
Simmen
, D.
, Scherrer
, J. L.
, Moe
, K.
, and Heinz
, B.
, 1999, “A Dynamic and Direct Visualization Model for the Study of Nasal Airflow
,” Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg.
0886-4470, 125
(9
), pp. 1015
–1021
.242.
Sobel
, N.
, Khan
, R. M.
, Saltman
, A.
, Sullivan
, E. V.
, and Gabrieli
, J. D. E.
, 1999, “Olfaction-The World Smells Different to Each Nostril
,” Nature (London)
0028-0836, 402
(6757
), p. 35
.243.
Sobel
, N.
, Prabhakaran
, V.
, Desmond
, J. E.
, Glover
, G. H.
, Goode
, R. L.
, Sullivan
, E. V.
, and Gabrieli
, J. D. E.
, 1998, “Sniffing and Smelling: Separate Subsystems in the Human Olfactory Cortex
,” Nature (London)
0028-0836, 392
(6673
), pp. 282
–286
.244.
Cheng
, Y. S.
, Hansen
, G. K.
, Su
, Y. F.
, Yeh
, H. C.
, and Morgan
, K. T.
, 1990, “Deposition of Ultrafine Aerosols in Rat Nasal Molds
,” Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.
0041-008X, 106
, pp. 222
–233
.245.
Kelly
, J. T.
, and Asgharian
, B.
, 2003, “Nasal Molds as Predictors of Fine and Coarse Particle Deposition in Rat Nasal Airways
,” Inhalation Toxicol.
0895-8378, 15
(9
), pp. 859
–875
.246.
Kelly
, J. T.
, Kimbell
, J. S.
, and Asgharian
, B.
, 2001, “Deposition of Fine and Coarse Aerosols in a Rat Nasal Mold
,” Inhalation Toxicol.
0895-8378, 13
(7
), pp. 577
–588
.247.
Morgan
, K. T.
, Kimbell
, J. S.
, Monticello
, T. M.
, Patra
, A. L.
, and Fleischman
, A.
, 1991, “Studies of Inspiratory Air-Flow Patterns in the Nasal Passages of the F344 Rat and Rhesus-Monkey Using Nasal Molds-Relevance to Formaldehyde Toxicity
,” Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol.
0041-008X, 110
(2
), pp. 223
–240
.248.
Kauer
, J. S.
, 1968, “A Study of the Structure and Function of the Vomeronasal (Jacobson’s) Organ
,” MA thesis, Clark University, Worcester, MA.249.
Welker
, W. I.
, 1964, “Analysis of Sniffing of the Albino Rat
,” Behaviour
0005-7959, 22
, pp. 223
–244
.250.
Wilson
, D. A.
, and Sullivan
, R. M.
, 1999, “Respiratory Airflow Pattern at the Rat’s Snout and an Hypothesis Regarding its Role in Olfaction
,” Physiol. Behav.
0031-9384, 66
(1
), pp. 41
–44
.251.
Youngentob
, S. L.
, Mozell
, M. M.
, Sheehe
, P. R.
, and Hornung
, D. E.
, 1987, “A Quantitative Analysis of Sniffing Strategies in Rats Performing Odor Detection Tasks
,” Physiol. Behav.
0031-9384, 41
(1
), pp. 59
–69
.252.
Kepecs
, A.
, 2004 (unpublished).253.
Kleerekoper
, H.
, 1969, Olfaction in Fishes
, Indiana University
, Bloomington, IN.254.
Pohlmann
, K.
, Grasso
, F. W.
, and Breithaupt
, T.
, 2001, “Tracking Wakes: The Nocturnal Predatory Strategy of Piscivorous Catfish
,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
0027-8424, 98
(13
), pp. 7371
–7374
.255.
Wallraff
, H. G.
, 2003, “Olfactory Navigation by Birds
,” Journal für Ornithologie
, 144
(1
), pp. 1
–32
.256.
Wallraff
, H. G.
, 2000, “Simulated Navigation Based on Observed Gradients of Atmospheric Trace Gases (Models on Pigeon Homing, Part 3)
,” J. Theor. Biol.
0022-5193, 205
(1
), pp. 133
–145
.257.
Wallraff
, H. G.
, and Andreae
, M. O.
, 2000, “Spatial Gradients in Ratios of Atmospheric Trace Gases: A Study Stimulated by Experiments on Bird Navigation
,” Tellus, Ser. B
0280-6509, 52
(4
), pp. 1138
–1157
.258.
Bang
, B. G.
, 1966, “The Olfactory Apparatus of Tubenosed Birds (Procellariiformes)
,” Acta Anat. (Basel)
0001-5180, 65
, pp. 391
–415
.259.
Pennycuick
, C. J.
, 2002, “Gust Soaring as a Basis for the Flight of Petrels and Albatrosses (Procellariiformes)
,” Avian Science
, 2
(1
), pp. 1
–12
.260.
Witmer
, L. M.
, 2001, “A Nose for All Seasons
,” Natural History
, 110
, pp. 64
–71
.261.
Witmer
, L. M.
, 2001, “Nostril Position in Dinosaurs and Other Vertebrates and its Significance for Nasal Function
,” Science
0036-8075, 293
, pp. 850
–853
.262.
Cruickshank
, A. R. I.
, Small
, P.
, and Taylor
, M.
, 1991, “Dorsal Nostrils and Hydrodynamically Driven Underwater Olfaction in Plesiosaurs
,” Nature (London)
0028-0836, 352
, pp. 62
–64
.263.
Goldman
, J. A.
, and Patek
, S. N.
, 2002, “Two Sniffing Strategies in Palinurid Lobsters
,” J. Exp. Biol.
0022-0949, 205
(24
), pp. 3891
–3902
.264.
Koehl
, M. A. R.
, 2001, “Transitions in Function at Low Reynolds Number: Hair-Bearing Animal Appendages
,” Math. Methods Appl. Sci.
0170-4214, 24
(17-18
), pp. 1523
–1532
.265.
Hansson
, B. S.
, 1999, Insect Olfaction
, Springer-Verlag
, Berlin.266.
Humphrey
, J. A. C.
, and Haj-Hariri
, H.
, 2002, “Detection and Real Time Processing of Odor Plume Information by Arthropods in Air and Water
,” Proceedings of the AFI-2002 Mini-Symposium on Advanced Fluids Information—Fusion of EFD and CFD
, Institute of Fluid Science, Tohoku University, Tokyo, pp. 47
–67
.267.
Schneider
, R. W. S.
, Lanzen
, J.
, and Moore
, P. A.
, 1998, “Boundary-Layer Effect on Chemical Signal Movement Near the Antennae of the Sphinx Moth, Manduca Sexta: Temporal Filters for Olfaction
,” J. Comp. Physiol. [A]
0340-7594, 182
(3
), pp. 287
–298
.268.
Loudon
, C.
, and Koehl
, M. A. R.
, 2001, “Sniffing by a Silkworm Moth: Wing Fanning Enhances Air Penetration Through and Pheromone Interception by Antennae
,” J. Exp. Biol.
0022-0949, 203
(19
), pp. 2977
–2990
.269.
Spielman
, A.
, and D’Antonio
, M.
, 2001, Mosquito
, Hyperion
, New York.270.
Wright
, R. H.
, 1975, “Why Mosquito Repellents Repel
,” Sci. Am.
0036-8733, 233
(7
), pp. 104
–111
.271.
Fox
, A. N.
, Pitts
, R. J.
, Robertson
, H. M.
, Carlson
, J. R.
, and Zwiebel
, L. J.
, 2001, “Candidate Odorant Receptors from the Malaria Vector Mosquito Anopheles Gambiae and Evidence of Down-Regulation in Response to Blood Feeding
,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.
0027-8424, 98
(25
), pp. 14693
–14697
.272.
Takken
, W.
, 1991, “The Role of Olfaction in Host-Seeking of Mosquitoes: A Review
,” Sci. App. 12
(1–3
), pp. 287
–295
.273.
Dekker
, T.
, Takken
, W.
, Knols
, B. G. J.
, Bouman
, E.
, van de Laak
, S.
, de Bever
, A.
, and Huisman
, P. W. T.
, 1998, “Selection of Biting Sites on a Human Host by Anopheles Gambiae, An-Arabiensis and An-Quadriannulatus
,” Entomol. Exper. App., 87
(3
), pp. 295
–300
.274.
Knols
, B. G. J.
, Takken
, W.
, Cork
, A.
, and DeJong
, R.
, 1997, “Odour-Mediated, Host-Seeking Behavior of Anopheles Mosquitoes: A New Approach
,” Ann. Trop. Med. Parasitol.
0003-4983, 91
, pp. S117
–S118
.275.
Takken
, W.
, 1996, “Synthesis and Future Challenges: The Response of Mosquitoes to Host Odours
,” Ciba Found Symp.
0300-5208, 200
, pp. 302
–312
.276.
McIver
, S. B.
, 1982, “Sensilla of Mosquitoes (Diptera:Culicidae)
,” J. Med. Ethics
0306-6800, 19
, pp. 489
–535
.277.
Sutcliffe
, J. F.
, 1994, “Sensory Bases of Attractancy: Morphology of Mosquito Olfactory Sensilla—A Review
,” J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc.
8756-971X, 10
(2
), Part 2, pp. 309
–315
.278.
Bidlingmayer
, W. L.
, Day
, J. F.
, and Evans
, D. G.
, 1995, “Effect of Wind Velocity on Suction Trap Catches of Some Florida Mosquitos
,” J. Am. Mosq. Control Assoc.
8756-971X, 11
(3
), pp. 295
–301
.279.
Békésy
, G. v.
, 1964, “Olfactory Analogue to Directional Hearing
,” J. Appl. Physiol.
0021-8987, 19
(3
), pp. 369
–373
.280.
Kobal
, G.
, Van Toller
, S.
, and Hummel
, T.
, 1989, “Is there Directional Smelling?
,” Experientia
0014-4754, 45
(2
), pp. 130
–132
.281.
Stoddart
, D. M.
, 1979, “External Nares and Olfactory Perception
,” Experientia
0014-4754, 35
, pp. 1456
–1457
.282.
Kajiura
, S. M.
, Forni
, J. B.
, and Summers
, A. P.
, 2005, “Olfactory Morphology of Carcharhinid and Sphyrnid Sharks-Does the Cephalofoil Confer a Sensory Advantage?
,” J. Morphol.
0362-2525, in press.283.
Vanneste
, E.
, and Geise
, H. J.
, 2003, “Commercial Electronic Nose Instruments
,” in Handbook of Machine Olfaction
, T. C.
Pearce
et al., eds., Wiley
, New York, pp. 161
–179
.284.
Snopok
, B. A.
, and Kruglenko
, I. V.
, 2002, “Multisensor Systems for Chemical Analysis: State-of-the-Art in Electronic Nose Technology and New Trends in Machine Olfaction
,” Thin Solid Films
0040-6090, 418
(1
), pp. 21
–41
.285.
Yinon
, J.
, 2003, “Detection of Explosives by Electronic Noses
,” Anal. Chem.
0003-2700, 75
(5
), pp. 99A
–105A
.286.
Li
, J.
, 2000, “The Cyranose Chemical Vapor Analyzer
,” Sensors
0746-9462, 17
(8
), pp. 56
–60
.287.
Cumming
, C.
, Aker
, C.
, Fisher
, M.
, Fox
, M.
, IaGrone
, M.
, Reust
, D.
, Rockley
, M.
, Swager
, T.
, Towers
, E.
, and Williams
, V.
, 2001, “Using Novel Fluorescent Polymers As Sensory Materials for Above-Ground Sensing of Chemical Signature Compounds Emanating From Buried Landmines
,” IEEE Trans. Geosci. Remote Sens.
0196-2892, 39
(6
), pp. 1119
–1128
.288.
Albert
, K. J.
, Myrick
, M. L.
, Brown
, S. B.
, James
, D. L.
, Milanovich
, F. P.
, and Walt
, D. R.
, 2003, “Field-Deployable Sniffer for 2,4-Dinitrotoluene Detection
,” Environ. Sci. Technol.
0013-936X, 35
(15
), pp. 3193
–3200
.289.
Staples
, E. J.
, 2001, “The ZNose
,” Sensors
, 18
(6
), pp. 92
–97
.290.
Gelperin
, A.
, and Hopfield
, J. J.
, 2002, “Electronic and Computational Olfaction
,” ACS Symposium Series
, 825
, pp. 289
–317
.291.
Gelperin
, A.
, Oct. 7, 1997, “Olfactory Sensor Identification System and Method
,” U.S. Patent 5,675,070.292.
White
, J. E.
, Waggoner
, L. P.
, and Kauer
, J. S.
, 2004, “Explosives and Landmine Detection Using an Artificial Olfactory System
,” Proceedings SPIE Security Defense Conference
, Orlando, Proc. SPIE
0277-786X, 5415
, Paper 35, pp. 521
–532
.293.
Kauer
, J. S.
, and White
, J. E.
, 2003, “Representation of Odor Information in the Olfactory System: From Biology to an Artificial Nose
,” in Sensors and Sensing in Biology and Engineering
, Springer-Verlag
, Vienna, pp. 305
–322
.294.
White
, J. E.
, Mall
, S.
, and Kauer
, J. S.
, 2002, “Using Biology to Guide Development of an Artificial Olfactory System
,” in Neurotechnology for Biomimetic Robots
, J.
Ayers
, J. L.
Davis
, and A.
Rudolph
, eds., MIT
, Cambridge, MA.295.
Eiceman
, G. A.
, 2002, “Ion-Mobility Spectrometry as a Fast Monitor of Chemical Composition
,” Trends Analyt. Chem.
0167-2940, 21
(4
), pp. 259
–275
.296.
Hill
, H. H.
, Siems
, W. F.
, StLouis
, R. H.
, and McMinn
, D. G.
, 1990, “Ion Mobility Spectrometry
,” Anal. Chem.
0003-2700, 62
(23
), pp. A1201
–A1209
.297.
Linker
, K. L.
, Adkins
, D. R.
, Mowry
, C. D.
, Trudell
, D. E.
, Pfeifer
, K. B.
, Sanchez
, R. C.
, and Rohde
, S. B.
, 2001, “Micro-Explosives Detection System μHound™
,” in Proceedings of the 3rd FAA International Symposium on Explosives Detection and Aviation Security Technologies
, Atlantic City, NJ, U.S. Federal Aviation Administration.298.
Call
, P.
, Kenning
, V.
, and Moler
, C.
, 2001, “BioCapture Air Sampler
,” http://www.mesosystems.com/http://www.mesosystems.com/299.
McGown
, J. B.
, Bromberg
, E. A.
, and Noble
, L. W.
, Mar. 20, 1990, “Vapor Sampling Probe
,” U.S. Patent 4,909,090.300.
Carroll
, A. L.
, Miskolczy
, G.
, Fraim
, F. W.
, Achter
, E. K.
, and Lieb
, D. P.
, June 23, 1992, “Hand-Held Sample Gun for Vapor Collection
,” U.S. Patent 5,123,274.301.
Kolb
, B.
, and Ettre
, L. S.
, 1997, Static Headspace-Gas Chromatography: Theory and Practice
, Wiley-VCH
, New York.302.
Davidson
, W. R.
, and Stott
, W. R.
, 1994, “Synergy or Dichotomy—Vapor and Particle Sampling in the Detection of Contraband
,” Proceedings SPIE Conference on Substance Detection Systems
, Innsbruck
, Austria, Proc. SPIE
0277-786X, 2092
, pp. 108
–119
.303.
Fainberg
, A.
, 1992, “Explosives Detection for Aviation Security
,” Science
0036-8075, 255
(5051
), pp. 1531
–1537
.304.
Steinfeld
, J. I.
, and Wormhoudt
, J.
, 1998, “Explosives Detection: A Challenge for Physical Chemistry
,” Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem.
0066-426X, 49
, pp. 203
–232
.305.
Bender
, E.
, Hogan
, A.
, Leggett
, D.
, Miskolczy
, G.
, and Macdonald
, S.
, 1992, “Surface Contamination by TNT
,” J. Forensic Sci.
0022-1198, 37
(6
), pp. 1673
–1678
.306.
Brown
, R. H.
, and Monteith
, L. E.
, 2001, “Gas and Vapor Sample Collectors
,” in Air Sampling Instruments for Evaluation of Atmospheric Contaminants
, 9th Ed., American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists
, Cincinnati, OH, pp. 415
–455
.307.
Anonymous
, 1989, “Part I—General Techniques
,” in Methods of Air Sampling and Analysis
, 3rd Ed., J. P.
Lodge
, ed., Lewis Publishers
, New York, pp. 3
–58
.308.
Brown
, H. R.
, and Purnell
, C. J.
, 1979, “Collection and Analysis of Trace Organic Vapor Pollutants in Ambient Atmospheres
,” J. Chromatogr.
0021-9673, 178
, pp. 97
–80
.309.
Bender
, F.
, Barie
, N.
, Romoudis
, G.
, Voigt
, A.
, and Rapp
, A.
, 2003, “Development of a Preconcentration Unit for a SAW Sensor Micro Array and Its Use for Indoor Air Quality Monitoring
,” Sens. Actuators B
0925-4005, 93
(1–3
), pp. 135
–141
.310.
Yinon
, J.
, 1999, Forensic and Environmental Detection of Explosives
, Wiley
, New York.311.
Fraim
, F. W.
, Achter
, E. K.
, Carroll
, A. L.
, and Hainsworth
, E.
, 1992, “Efficient Collection of Explosive Vapors, Particles and Aerosols
,” Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Explosives Detection Technology, Nov. 1991
, S. M.
Khan
, ed., Report DOT/FAA/CT-92/11 U. S. Federal Aviation Administration
, Atlantic City, NJ
, pp. 559
–565
.312.
Achter
, E. K.
, Carroll
, A. L.
, Roundbehler
, D. P.
, Fine
, D. H.
, and Fraim
, F. W.
, Mar. 3, 1992, “Vapor Collector/Desorber With Metallic Ribbon
,” U.S. Patent 5,092,157.313.
Linker
, K. L.
, 2001, “Large-Volume Sampling and Preconcentration
,” in Proceedings of the 3rd FAA International Symposium on Explosives Detection and Aviation Security Techniques
, U. S. Federal Aviation Administration
, Atlantic City, NJ
.314.
Dravnieks
, A.
, 1966, “Odors As Signatures
,” New Sci.
0262-4079, 31
, pp. 622
–624
.315.
Aaberg
, C. P. N.
, Aug. 23, 1977, “Method and Apparatus for Exhausting Air from a Limited Zone
,” U.S. Patent 4,043,257.316.
Kulmala
, I.
, 2000, “Experimental Validation of Potential and Turbulent Flow Models for a Two-Dimensional Jet-Enhanced Exhaust Hood
,” Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.
0002-8894, 61
(Mar./Apr.
), pp. 183
–191
.317.
Burton
, D. J.
, 2000, “Practical Applications of an Aaberg Hood
,” Occup. Health Saf.
0362-4064, 69
(11
), pp. 37
–39
.318.
Heinsohn
, R. J.
, and Cimbala
, J. M.
, 2002, “Present Local Ventilation Practice
,” in Indoor Air Quality Engineering
, Marcel Dekker
, New York, pp. 437
–515
.319.
Rueeg
, T.
, Gubler
, D.
, Sprecher
, P.
, Moser
, A.
, and Weber
, R.
, 2004, “Local Capture of Contaminants
,” ASHRAE J.
0001-2491, 46
(1
), pp. 26
–29
.320.
Hunt
, G. R.
, and Ingham
, D. B.
, 1996, “Long Range Exhaustion—A Mathematical Model for the Axisymmetric Airflow of a Local Exhaust Ventilation Hood Assisted by a Turbulent Radial Jet
,” Ann. Occup. Hyg.
0003-4878, 40
(2
), pp. 171
–196
.321.
Cant
, R.
, Castro
, I.
, and Walklate
, P.
, 2002, “Plane Jets Impinging on Porous Walls
,” Exp. Fluids
0723-4864, 32
(1
), pp. 16
–26
.322.
Anonymous
, 2001, “Air curtains
,” in Industrial Ventilation Design Guidebook
, Academic
, San Diego, pp. 553
–571
.323.
Stenger
, J. B.
, and Bajura
, R. A.
, 1984, “Deposition in Sampling Tubes
,” in Aerosols: Science, Technology and Industrial Applications of Airborne Particles, Proceedings of the First International Aerosol Conference
, Elsevier
, New York, pp. 175
–178
.324.
Falcitelli
, M.
, Benassi
, A.
, Di Francesco
, F.
, Domenici
, C.
, Marano
, L.
, and Pioggia
, G.
, 2002, “Fluid Dynamic Simulation of a Measurement Chamber for Electronic Noses
,” Sens. Actuators B
0925-4005, 85
(1–2
), pp. 166
–174
.325.
Laibach
, E.
, 1937, “Das Geruchsorgan des Aals (Anguilla Vulgaris) in Seinen Verschiedenen Entwicklungsstadien
,” Zoologische Jahrbucher, Abterlung fur Anatomie und Ontogenie der Tiere
, 63
, pp. 37
–72
.326.
Rae
, W. H.
, and Pope
, A. Y.
, 1984, Low-Speed Wind Tunnel Testing
, Wiley
, New York.327.
Mälhammar
, A.
, 2004, “A Method for Comparing Heat Sinks Based on Reynolds Analogy
,” Proceedings of the 10th International Workshop on Thermal Investigation of ICs and Systems
, Sophia Antipolis
, France, pp. 229
–234
.328.
Eckert
, E. R. G.
, and Drake
, R. M.
, 1959, Heat and Mass Transfer
, McGraw-Hill
, NY.329.
Garimella
, S. V.
, 1996, “Enhanced Air Cooling of Electronic equipment
,” in Air Cooling Technology for Electronic Equipment
, S. J.
Kim
and S. W.
Lee
, eds., CRC
, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 173
–202
.330.
Settles
, G. S.
, 2006, “Fluid Mechanics and Homeland Security
,” submitted to Annu. Rev. Fluid Mech.
0066-4189, 38
.331.
Carranza
, J. E.
, Fisher
, B. T.
, Yoder
, G. D.
, and Hahn
, D. W.
, 2001, “On-Line Analysis of Ambient Air Aerosols Using Laser-Induced Breakdown Spectroscopy
,” Spectrochim. Acta, Part B
0584-8547, 56
(6
), pp. 851
–864
.332.
Myers
, L. J.
, 1992, “The Dog-Handler Team as a Detection System for Explosives: A Tail to be Told
,” Proceedings of the Conference on the Aviation Security Problem and Related Technologies
, W. H.
Makky
, ed., SPIE CR42
, San Diego, pp. 93
–103
.333.
Furton
, K. G.
, and Myers
, L. J.
, 2001, “The Scientific Foundation and Efficacy of the Use of Canines As Chemical Detectors for Explosives
,” Talanta
0039-9140, 54
(3
), pp. 487
–500
.334.
Gazit
, I.
, and Terkel
, J.
, 2003, “Explosives Detection by Sniffer Dogs Following Strenuous Physical Activity
,” App. Animal Behav. Sci., 81
(2
), pp. 149
–161
.335.
Gazit
, I.
, Lavner
, Y.
, Bloch
, G.
, Azulai
, O.
, Goldblatt
, A.
, and Terkel
, J.
, 2003, “A Simple System for the Remote Detection and Analysis of Sniffing in Explosives Detection Dogs
,” Behav. Res. Methods Instrum. Comput.
0743-3808, 35
(1
), pp. 82
–89
.336.
Rooney
, N. J.
, Bradshaw
, J. W. S.
, and Almey
, H. E.
, 2004, “Attributes of Specialist Search Dogs-A Questionnaire Survey of UK Dog Handlers and Trainers
,” J. Forensic Sci.
0022-1198, 49
(2
), pp. 300
–306
.337.
Ternes
, J. W.
, and Prestrude
, A. M.
, 1992, “Integration of the Human, Canine, Machine Interface for Explosives Detection
,” Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Explosive Detection Technology
, S. M.
Khan
, ed., Report DOT/FAA/CT-92/11 U. S. Federal Aviation Administration
, Atlantic City, NJ
, pp. 891
–902
.338.
Settles
, G. S.
, 1999, “Schlieren and Shadowgraph Imaging in the Great Outdoors
,” Proceedings of the 2nd Pacific Symposium on Flow Visualization and Image Processing
, S.
Mochizuki
, ed., Honolulu, Pacific Center of Thermal-Fluids Engineering
, Tokyo
.339.
Fine
, D. H.
, Fraim
, F. W.
, MacDonald
, S. J.
, and Thrash
, K. M.
, Dec. 27, 1994, “Method and System for Sampling and Determining the Presence of Compounds in Containers
,” U.S. Patent 5,376,550.340.
Davidson
, W. R.
, Stott
, W. R.
, Akery
, A. K.
, and Sleeman
, R.
, 1992, “The Role of Mass Spectrometry in the Detection of Explosives
,” Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on Explosive Detection Technology
, S. M.
Khan
, ed., Report DOT/FAA/CT-92/11, U. S. Federal Aviation Administration
, Atlantic City, NJ
, pp. 663
–667
.341.
Cartwright
, P. A.
, Alcock
, N. J.
, Groves
, D. M.
, Almey
, H. E.
, and Brookes
, M. D.
, 2001, “Development of Performance Evaluation Tubes for Remote Air Sampling for Canine Olfaction (RASCO)
,” in Proceedings of the 3rd FAA International Symposium on Explosives Detection and Aviation Security Technologies
, U. S. Federal Aviation Administration
, Atlantic City, NJ
.342.
Lord
, D.
, 2004, “RASCO: A New Cargo Screening Methodology Comes of Age
,” Aviation Security International
, 9
(4
), p. 34
.343.
Jenkins
, A.
, Mar. 9, 1976, “Inspection Apparatus
,” U.S. Patent 3,942,357.344.
Ornath
, F.
, and Beuchler
, S. S.
, Aug. 24, 1999, “Method and Apparatus for Sampling Contaminants
,” U.S. Patent 5,942,699.345.
Smith
, D. J.
, 2005, “The Internal Airflow in Cargo Containers and Methods to Sample it for Chemical Trace Detection
,” M.S. Thesis, Pennsylvania State University, State College PA.346.
Anonymous
, 1996, “Airline Passenger Security Screening—New Technologies and Implementation Issues
,” US National Research Council Report NMAB-482-1, U. S. National Academy of Science, Washington, DC.347.
Anonymous
, 2002, “People Screening Weapon & Explosives Detection
,” Market Report 2003–2010, Homeland Security Research Corp.
, San Jose, CA.348.
Hallowell
, S. F.
, 2001, “Screening People for Illicit Substances: a Survey of Current Portal Technology
,” Talanta
0039-9140, 54
(3
), pp. 447
–458
.349.
Dravnieks
, A.
, 1975, “Evaluation of Human Body Odor: Methods and Interpretations
,” J. Soc. Cosmet. Chem.
0037-9832, 26
(11
), pp. 551
–571
.350.
Bethune
, D. W.
, Blowers
, R.
, Parker
, M.
, and Pask
, E. A.
, 1965, “Dispersal of Staphylococcus Aureus by Patients and Surgical Staff
,” Lancet
0140-6736, 318
, pp. 480
–483
.351.
Whyte
, W.
, Vesley
, D.
, and Hodgson
, R.
, 1976, “Particle Dispersion in Relation to Operating Room Clothing
,” J. Hyg. (Lond)
0022-1724, 76
, pp. 367
–378
.352.
Whyte
, W.
, 2001, Cleanroom Technology: Fundamentals of Design, Testing, and Operation
, Wiley
, New York.353.
Settles
, G. S.
, Gowadia
, H. A.
, Strine
, S. B.
, and Johnson
, T. E.
, 1996, “The Natural Aerodynamic Sampling of Trace Explosives From the Human Body
,” Proceedings of the 2nd FAA Conference on the Aviation Security Problem and Related Technologies
, W. H.
Makky
, ed., SPIE CR42
, Atlantic City, NJ, pp. 65
–70
.354.
Settles
, G. S.
, Ferree
, H. C.
, Tronosky
, M. D.
, Moyer
, Z. M.
, and McGann
, W. J.
, 2001, “Natural Aerodynamic Portal Sampling of Trace Explosives From the Human Body
,” in Proceedings 3rd FAA International Symposium on Explosive Detection and Aviation Security
, U. S. Federal Aviation Administration
, Atlantic City, NJ
.355.
Achter
, E. K.
, Burke
, E. J.
, Miskolczy
, G.
, and Sonin
, A. A.
, Mar. 20, 1990, “Walk-in Inspection Apparatus for Producing Air Samples
,” U.S. Patent 4,909,089.356.
Linker
, K. L.
, Hannum
, D. W.
, and Conrad
, F. J.
, June 22, 1999, “Vertical Flow Chemical Detection Portal
,” U.S. Patent 5,915,268.357.
Settles
, G. S.
, June 13, 2000, “Chemical Trace Detection Portal Based on the Natural Airflow and Heat Transfer of the Human Body
,” U.S. Patent 6,073,499.358.
Davies
, J. H.
, Apr. 23, 2002, “Apparatus and Method for Screening People and Articles to Detect and/or to Decontaminate with Respect to Certain Substances
,” U.S. Patent 6,375,697.359.
Phares
, D. J.
, Holt
, J. K.
, Smedley
, G. T.
, and Flagan
, R. C.
, 2000, “Method for Characterization of Adhesion Properties of Trace Explosives in Fingerprints and Fingerprint Simulations
,” J. Forensic Sci.
0022-1198, 45
(4
), pp. 774
–784
.360.
Neudorfl
, P.
, McCooeye
, M. A.
, and Elias
, L.
, 1993, “Testing Protocol for Surface-Sampling Detectors
,” Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on the Analysis and Detection of Explosives
, J.
Yinon
, ed., Kluwer Academic
, New York, pp. 373
–384
.361.
Sorensen
, D. N.
, and Voight
, L. K.
, 2003, “Modelling Flow and Heat Transfer Around a Seated Human Body by Computational Fluid Dynamics
,” Build. Environ.
0360-1323, 38
(6
), pp. 753
–762
.362.
Murakami
, S.
, Kato
, S.
, and Zeng
, J.
, 2000, “Combined Simulation of Airflow, Radiation and Moisture Transport for Heat Release From a Human Body
,” Build. Environ.
0360-1323, 35
(6
), pp. 489
–500
.363.
Craven
, B. A.
, and Settles
, G. S.
, 2005, “A Computational and Experimental Investigation of the Human Thermal Plume
,” submitted to J. Biomech. Eng.
0148-0731364.
Schellenbaum
, R. L.
, 1987, “Air Flow Studies for Personnel Explosives Screening Portals
,” Proceedings of the 1987 Carnahan Conference on Security Technology: Electronic Crime Countermeasures
, Lexington, KY
, IEEE, New York, pp. 101
–105
.365.
Hobbs
, J. R.
, and Conde
, E. P.
, 1993, “Analysis of Airflows in Personnel Screening Booths
,” Proceedings of the Fourth International Symposium on the Analysis and Detection of Explosives
, J.
Yinon
, ed., Kluwer Academic
, New York, pp. 437
–453
.366.
Daws
, L. F.
, 1970, “Movement of Airstreams Indoors
,” J. Inst. Heat. Vent. Eng., 37
(2
), pp. 241
–253
.367.
Parmeter
, J. E.
, Linker
, K. L.
, Rhykerd
, C. L.
, Hannum
, D. W.
, and Bouchier
, F. A.
, 1998, “Explosives Detection Portal for High-Volume Personnel Screening
,” in Enforcement and Security Technologies
, Proc. SPIE
0277-786X, 3575
, pp. 384
–391
.368.
Linker
, K. L.
, and Brusseau
, C. A.
, Jan. 1, 2002, “Target Detection Portal
,” U.S. Patent 6,334,365.369.
Whyte
, W.
, and McGeorge
, D.
, 1994, “Evaluating the Effects of a Cleanroom Air Shower on Particle Dispersion
,” Microcontamination
0738-713X, 12
(9
), pp. 39
–41, 69
.370.
Batill
, S. M.
, and Hoffman
, J. J.
, 1986, “Aerodynamic Design of Three-Dimensional Subsonic Wind Tunnel Inlets
,” AIAA J.
0001-1452, 24
(2
), pp. 268
–269
.371.
Settles
, G. S.
, and McGann
, W. J.
, 2001, “Potential for Portal Detection of Human Chemical and Biological Contamination
,” in Aerosense 2001: Sensor Technology and Application
, SPIE-International Society for Optical Engineering
4378
, Paper 01.372.
Edge
, B. A.
, Paterson
, E. G.
, and Settles
, G. S.
, 2005, “Computational Study of the Wake and Contaminant Transport of a Walking Human
,” submitted to ASME J. Fluids Eng.
0098-2202373.
Rodes
, C. E.
, Kamens
, R. M.
, and Wiener
, R. W.
, 1995, “Experimental Considerations for the Study of Contaminant Dispersion Near the Body
,” Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.
0002-8894, 56
(6
), pp. 535
–545
.374.
Kim
, T.
, and Flynn
, M. R.
, 1991, “Airflow Pattern Around a Worker in a Uniform Freestream
,” Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.
0002-8894, 52
(7
), pp. 287
–296
.375.
Flynn
, M. R.
, and Miller
, C. T.
, 1991, “Discrete Vortex Methods for the Simulation of Boundary-Layer Separation Effects on Worker Exposure
,” Ann. Occup. Hyg.
0003-4878, 35
(1
), pp. 35
–50
.376.
Flynn
, M. R.
, and Ljungqvist
, B.
, 1995, “A Review of Wake Effects on Worker Exposure
,” Ann. Occup. Hyg.
0003-4878, 39
(2
), pp. 211
–221
.377.
Murakami
, S.
, Zeng
, J.
, and Hayashi
, T.
, 1999, “CFD Analysis of Wind Environment Around a Human Body
,” J. Wind. Eng. Ind. Aerodyn.
0167-6105, 83
, pp. 393
–408
.378.
Moyer
, Z. M.
, 2003, “The Human Aerodynamic Wake and the Design of a Portal to Sample It
,” M.S. thesis, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.379.
Craven
, B. A.
, and Settles
, G. S.
, 2005, “The Design of a Chemical Trace Detection Portal That Samples the Aerodynamic Wake of a Walking Person
,” in preparation.380.
Anonymous
, 1998, Hidden Killers: The Global Landmine Crisis
, U.S. Dept. of State Publication
0575.381.
Andersson
, N.
, Dasousa
, C. P.
, and Paredes
, S.
, 1995, “Social Cost of Land Mines in 4 Countries—Afghanistan, Bosnia, Cambodia, and Mozambique
,” Br. Med. J.
0007-1447, 311
(7007
), pp. 718
–721
.382.
Ashley
, S.
, 1996, “Searching for Land Mines
,” Mech. Eng. (Am. Soc. Mech. Eng.)
0025-6501, 118
(4
), pp. 62
–67
.383.
Strada
, G.
, 1996, “The Horror of Land Mines
,” Sci. Am.
0036-8733, 278
(5
), pp. 40
–45
.384.
Pamula
, V. K.
, 2003, “Detection of Explosives
,” in Handbook of Machine Olfaction
, T. C.
Pearce
et al., eds., Wiley
, New York, pp. 547
–580
.385.
Phelan
, J.
, and Webb
, S. W.
, 1998, “Simulation of the Environmental Fate and Transport of Chemical Signatures From Buried Landmines
,” Proceedings of the 1999 Detection and Remediation Technologies for Mines and Minelike Targets III
, Proc. SPIE
0277-786X, 3392
(1
), pp. 509
–520
.386.
George
, V.
, Jenkins
, T. F.
, Leggett
, D. C.
, Cragin
, J. H.
, Phelan
, J.
, Oxley
, J.
, and Pennington
, J.
, 1999, “Progress on Determining the Vapor Signature of a Buried Land Mine
,” Proceedings of the SPIE Aerosense Conference
, Orlando, FL, Proc. SPIE
0277-786X, 3710
, pp. 258
–269
.387.
Jenkins
, T. F.
, Leggett
, D. C.
, Miyares
, P. H.
, Walsh
, M. E.
, Ranney
, T. A.
, Cragin
, J. H.
, and George
, V.
, 2001, “Chemical Signatures of TNT-Filled Land Mines
,” Talanta
0039-9140, 54
(3
), pp. 501
–513
.388.
Morgan
, J. S.
, Bryden
, W. A.
, Miragliotta
, J. A.
, and Aamodt
, L. C.
, 1999, “Improved Detection of Explosive Residues by Laser Thermal Desorption
,” Johns Hopkins APL Tech. Dig.
0270-5214, 20
(3
), pp. 389
–395
.389.
Fair
, R. B.
, Pollack
, M.
, and Pamula
, V. K.
, 1998, “MEMS Devices for Detecting the Presence of Explosive Material Residues in Mine Fields
,” in Proceedings of the 1999 Detection and Remediation Technologies for Mines and Minelike Targets III
, Proc. SPIE
0277-786X, 3392
(1
), pp. 409
–417
.390.
Fisher
, M.
, Cumming
, C.
, IaGrone
, M.
, and Taylor
, R.
, 1998, “An Electrostatic Particle Sampler and Chemical Sensor System for Landmine Detection by Chemical Signature
,” Proceedings of the 1998 Detection and Remediation Technologies for Mines and Minelike Targets III
, Proc. SPIE
0277-786X, 3392
(1
), pp. 565
–574
.391.
Morrocco
, J. D.
, 2000, “Field Trials in Kosovo Test Mine Detection
,” Aviat. Week Space Technol.
0005-2175, 156
, p. 38
.392.
Turner
, A. P. F.
, 2000, “Biosensors—Sense and Sensitivity
,” Science
0036-8075, 290
(5495
), pp. 1315
–1317
.393.
Cole
, L. A.
, 2003, The Anthrax Letters: A Medical Detective Story
, Joseph Henry Press
, Washington DC.394.
Pope
, C.
, 1928, “The Diagnostic Art of Smelling
,” Am. J. Med.
0002-9343, 34
, pp. 651
–653
.395.
Hayden
, G. F.
, 1980, “Olfactory Diagnosis in Medicine
,” Postgrad Med. J.
0032-5473, 67
(4
), pp. 110
–118
.396.
Tassopoulos
, C. N.
, Barnett
, D.
, and Fraser
, T. R.
, 1969, “Breath-Acetone and Blood-Sugar Measurements in Diabetes
,” Lancet
0140-6736, 1
(1282
), pp. 1286
.397.
McSherry
, J.
, 1986, “Sniffing Out the Diagnosis
,” Can. Med. Assoc. J.
0008-4409, 135
(10
), pp. 1070
.398.
Smith
, K.
, Thompson
, G. F.
, and Koster
, H. D.
, 1969, “Sweat in Schizophrenic Patients: Identification of the Odorous Substance
,” Science
0036-8075, 166
, pp. 398
–399
.399.
Distelheim
, I. H.
, and Dravnieks
, A.
, 1973, “A Method for Separating Characteristics of Odors in Detection of Disease Processes 1
,” Int. J. Dermatol.
0011-9059, 12
(4
), pp. 241
–244
.400.
Di Natale
, C.
, and D’Amico
, A.
, 2001, “The Electronic Nose Analysis of Breath As Potential Diagnostic Tool: the Case of Lung Cancer
,” Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Olfaction and the Electronic Nose
, J. R.
Stetter
and W. R.
Penrose
, eds., The Electrochemical Society
, Washington DC, pp. 48
–53
.401.
Krüger
, U.
, Körber
, R.
, Ziegler
, K.-H.
, Koronczi
, I.
, Nachnani
, S.
, and Goschnick
, J.
, 2001, “Electronic Noses Towards Practical Application in Medical Diagnostics
,” Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Olfaction and the Electronic Nose
, J. R.
Stetter
and W. R.
Penrose
, eds., The Electrochemical Society
, Washington DC, pp. 62
–64
.402.
Lawrence
, A. H.
, Nanji
, A. A.
, and Taverner
, J.
, 1988, “Skin-Sniffing Ion Mobility Spectrometric Analysis—A Potential Screening Method in Clinical Toxicology
,” J. Clin. Lab Anal
0887-8013, 2
(2
), pp. 101
–107
.403.
Batterman
, S. A.
, Franzblau
, A.
, and Zhou
, N.-Z.
, 1996, “Airborne Emissions at Skin Surfaces: a Potential Biological Exposure Index
,” Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health
0340-0131, 68
, pp. 268
–274
.404.
Stetter
, J. R.
, Penrose
, W. R.
, Kubba
, S.
, Kocka
, F.
, McEntegart
, C. M.
, Roberts
, R. R.
, and Iademarco
, M. F.
, 2001, “Enhancement of the Sensitivity of the Electronic Nose for Bacterial Applications
,” Proceedings of the Eighth International Symposium on Olfaction and the Electronic Nose
, J. R.
Stetter
and W. R.
Penrose
, eds., The Electrochemical Society
, Washington DC, pp. 54
–61
.405.
Roller
, C.
, Namjou
, K.
, Jeffers
, J. D.
, Camp
, M.
, Mock
, M.
, McCann
, P. J.
, and Grego
, J.
, 2002, “Nitric Oxide Breath Testing by Tunable-Diode Laser Absorption Spectroscopy: Application in Monitoring Respiratory Inflammation
,” Appl. Opt.
0003-6935, 41
(28
), pp. 6018
–6029
.406.
Pavlou
, A. K.
, and Turner
, A. P. F.
, 2000, “Sniffing Out the Truth: Clinical Diagnosis Using the Electronic Nose
,” Clin. Chem. Lab. Med.
1434-6621, 38
(2
), pp. 99
–112
.407.
Persaud
, K. C.
, Pisanelli
, A. M.
, and Evans
, P.
, 2003, “Medical Diagnostics and Health Monitoring
,” in Handbook of Machine Olfaction
, T. C.
Pearce
et al., eds., Wiley
, New York, pp. 445
–460
.408.
Settles
, G. S.
, 2004, “The Penn State Full-Scale Schlieren System
,” Proceedings of the 11th International Symposium on Flow Visualization
, T. J.
Mueller
and I.
Grant
, eds., Notre Dame University
, IN.409.
Kaminski
, R. K.
, 1980, “Leak Detection: A Route to Conservation and Safety
,” Proc., Am. Pet. Inst., Sect. 3
0099-3301, 59
, pp. 37
–41
.410.
Peale
, R. E.
, and Summers
, P. L.
, 1996, “Zebra Schlieren Optics for Leak Detection
,” Appl. Opt.
0003-6935, 35
(22
), pp. 4518
–4521
.411.
Settles
, G. S.
, 1999, “Imaging Gas Leaks by Using Schlieren Optics
,” Pipeline and Gas Journal
, 226
(9
), pp. 28
–30
.412.
Mcrae
, T. G.
, and Kulp
, T. J.
, 1993, “Backscatter Absorption Gas Imaging—A New Technique for Gas Visualization
,” Appl. Opt.
0003-6935, 32
(21
), pp. 4037
–4050
.413.
414.
Aston
, C.
, 2001, “Biological Warfare Canaries
,” IEEE Spectrum
0018-9235, 38
(10
), pp. 35ff
.415.
Olender
, T.
, Fuchs
, T.
, Linhart
, C.
, Shamir
, R.
, Adams
, M.
, Kalush
, F.
, Khen
, M.
, and Lancet
, D.
, 2004, “The Canine Olfactory Subgenome
,” Genomics
0888-7543, 83
(3
), pp. 361
–372
.Copyright © 2005
by American Society of Mechanical Engineers
You do not currently have access to this content.
